The
KAIST Lecture 2012.05.14:16:00
Spirit and
Responsibility of Higher Education
Kang Sungzong 姜成宗
Axon Neuroscience Laboratories
for Alzheimer’s Dementia and Bipolar Depression
9 Willow Avenue at Rockleigh Road
Rockleigh, New Jersey 07647-2707
http://viaxon.com & http://biodyne.com
viaxon@gmail.com & viagen@gmail.com
Education is the art of making
men ethical
[Die Pädagogik
ist die Kunst, die Menschen sittlich zu machen]
G.W.F. Hegel, Rechtsphilosophie, § 151
1
1 [Universitas
Litterarum]
The Korean higher education is in crossroad. It is fortunate
in a sense that the period of blind obsession with growth reached a certain
maturity, and that it is time we have to look back at our past and to quest for
an opportunity for a new social order in the further advancement of not only of
material wellbeing but also of the spiritual enrichment of the nation. Korea is
at this juncture here and now, and the university and higher education in
general sit right in the center of this complex problem and must seek for the answer
as to what kind of role it ought to play in shaping the nation. It is the
central question I would like to address in this prestigious institution. The
academic position is not called job.[1] It is called vocation. Vocation comes from
the Latin vocare meaning to call by God to do something for salvation of
mankind. It is considered man’s noble activity. The academic position you have
now is associated with those spirit and responsibility. Students are also a
part of this community as Universitas Litterarum is contained in a programme of
the
universitas magistrorum and studentorum. Some 200 years ago
in the West Johann Gottlieb Fichte delivered series of lectures in 1794 on the
subject of the vocation of the Scholar, the vocation of man in a society, and the
absolute vocation of man at Jena, Berlin, Erlangen and Königsberg, and the
Nature of the Scholar delivered in 1805 at Erlangen. At the time of Fichte
entire European higher education was in crisis similar we are experiencing in
these days here in Korea and globalized educational landscapes of the world:
marginalization of the core function of the universities. His main points in
his deliveries to the Scholars and university professors are [2]:
1. Knowledge is itself a branch of human culture; that branch must itself be
further advanced if all the faculties of man are to be continuously developed;
hence it is the duty of the Scholar, as of every man who has chosen a
particular condition of life, to strive for the advancement of knowledge, and
chiefly of his own peculiar department of knowledge; it is his duty as it is
the duty of every man in his own department; yes, it is much more than his
duty.
2. The mere knowledge, however, of the faculties and wants of man, without an
acquaintance with the means of developing and satisfying them, would be not
only a most sorrowful and discouraging, but also a vain and perfectly useless,
acquirement. This would not be such knowledge as society requires, and for
which a particular class of men is needed, to whom the possession of it may be
committed; for this knowledge does not aim at the perfection of the species [Pure
Reason and philosophical], and through that perfection at its
harmonious combination, as it ought to do: hence to this knowledge of wants
there must be added a knowledge of the means by which they may be satisfied;
and this knowledge properly devolves upon the same class, because the one
cannot be complete, and still less can it be active and living, without the
other [philosophical-historical].
3. If, however, this knowledge is to become useful to the society, it is not
sufficient to ascertain what faculties belong essentially to man, and through what
means they may be developed; such knowledge would still remain quite
unproductive. It must proceed a step farther, in order to secure the wished-for
benefits; we must also know on what particular grade of cultivation the society
to which we belong stands at a particular point of time; to what particular
stage it has next to ascend, and what are the means at its command for that
purpose.
4. There are many tendencies and powers in man, and it is the vocation of
each individual to cultivate all his powers, so far as he is able to do so.
Among others is the social impulse; which offers him a new and peculiar form of
cultivation, - that for society – and afford an unusual facility for culture in
general. There is nothing prescribed to man on this subject; whether he shall
cultivate all his faculties as a whole, unaided and by nature alone, or mediated
through society.
5. On the ground of Reason alone [reiner Vernunft of Kant] we can calculate
the direction which human progress must take; we can declare approximately the
particular steps by which it must pass to the attainment of a definite stage of
cultivation; but to declare the particular step on which it actually stands at
a given point of time is impossible for Reason alone; for this, Experience must
be questioned, the event of the past must be examined, but with an eye of
philosophy [historical].
6. The three branches of knowledge [Pure
Reason-Philosophical, Philosophical-Historical,
and Historical], when combined
together, constitute what is called learning, and he who devotes his life to
the acquisition of this knowledge is a Scholar. He further develops his
academic and moral principle as follows:
7. The scholar is the Guide of the human race.
8. The ultimate purpose of each individual man, as well as of all society,
and consequently of all the labors of the Scholar in society, is the moral elevation of all men. It is
the duty of the Scholar to have this final object constantly in view, and never
to lose sight of it in all that he does in society. But no one can successfully
labor for the moral improvement of his species who is not himself a good man. We
don’t teach by words alone, and we also teach much more impressively by
example; everyone who lives in society owes it a good example, because the
power of example has its origin in the social relation.
9. How much more is this due from the Scholar, who ought to be before all of
others in every branch of human culture?
Fichte compares the
Scholar to the biblical statement: Ye are the salt of the earth: if the salt
have lost its savor, wherewith shall it be salted? If chosen among men be
depraved, where shall we seek for moral good?
10. Thus, the scholar ought to be the best man of his age. He ought to exhibit
in himself the highest grade of moral culture then possible.
In this period of time, Friedrich the Great, with help of
Wilhelm von Humboldt, Minister of Education was eager to have an ideal
educational system representing Universtas Litterarum [a world of letters] for entire world. When he announced a new University
in Berlin, which could be a model of all European universities, the Fichte’s
proposal, Deduced Plan for a higher Educational Establishment to be set up in
Berlin, was adopted. The University started at the Palace of the King donated
by the Friedrich the Great. The Palace was located at the street Unter den
Linden, so is the University called University Unter den Linden.[3] Wilhelm
von Humboldt, then Minister of Education and a polymath Scholar as well,
attended Fichte’s class of Philosophy as a Minister and as a student as well.
Fichte became the first President of the University. The University produced 29
Nobel Laureates in science alone besides Karl Marx, Otto von Bismarck, Friedrich
Engels, Ferdinand de Saussure of Structuralism, Walter Benjamin and other
prominent. The list of those who have been shaping European intellectual faces
is endless. The University Unter den Linden, now known as the Humboldt
University has been a model of the Johns Hopkins University and many other
American universities across the Atlantic.
[2] Jixia Academy 稷下學宮
Much earlier than the spirit of Friedrich the Great,
Wilhelm von Humboldt, and Fichte, who fully and successfully embodied Higher
Education in Western Civilization, more flourishing and flowering Scholastic
Center was created by the King Xuan of Qi. It started by Duke Huan 2300 years
earlier in Eastern Civilization.
The patronage of scholarship began with Tian Wu 田午, known as Duke Huan 田桓公 (375-358 BC), who “established a
bureau at the Jixia, inaugurated the practice of bestowing the title of Grand
Officer and extended his welcome to wise men whom he honored and
esteemed."[4]
The Academy itself seems to have been founded by his son, King Wei
of Qi 齊威王 (357-320 BC), who brought together from all over China the
outstanding minds of the day. Under the influence of his prime minister, Zou Ji
鄒忌¶, King Wei
patronized some 72 scholars in the Academy, who “took delight in deliberating the affairs of
government," but who “treated Zou Ji disrespectfully whenever they had occasion to associate
with him.[11]
¶ 鄒忌(約前385-前319), 戰國時齊國大臣。以鼓琴游說齊威王,被任相國,封於下邳(今江蘇邳縣西南),稱成侯。勸說威王獎勵群臣吏民進諫,主張革新政治,修訂法律,選拔人才,獎勵賢臣,處罰奸吏,並選薦得力大臣堅守四境。從此齊國漸強
King Xuan 齊宣王 (319-301 BC) founded a
Scholars Hall 稷下學宮 outside the Ji Gate. During this period,the Academy reached its zenith. The king was fond of
scholars who were accomplished in learning and who were gifted virtuosos at
rhetoric. Seventy-six such men were associated with the Academy, were given
ranks and honors, and made senior grand officers, not to participate in the
government but to deliberate and propound learned theories. For this reason, “the scholars beneath the Ji Gate 稷下 enjoyed a renaissance coming, to number in the hundreds and thousands”.
Mencius says of King Xuan that the “heart behind his actions was sufficient to
enable him to become a true king" and that despite his inordinate fondness
for acts of valor, money, sex, and musical performances, he might have become
great but for his refusal to act in the proper fashion.
The Jixia scholars seem to have been free to debate with
one another without any of the responsibilities of high office, though they
were accorded its honors and emoluments. Freed from having to put their
theories into action, the Jixia scholars seem to have delighted in displays of
skill in argumentation. A few, such as Shunyu Kun 淳于髡순우곤, abjured
holding of office as a matter of principle, but most seem to have hungered for
the power to act that office alone provided. We know very little more about the
Jixia Academy and how its scholars debated one another.
It was formally founded around 318 BC in the city of Linzi 臨淄, capital of the state of Qi (modern Shandong province), and Jixia was a
gate in the city wall. At the time, Linzi 臨淄 was one of the largest, most prosperous cities in the world. "For
the first time on record a state began to act as a patron of scholarship out of
the apparent conviction that this was a proper function of the state or a means
of increasing its prestige" [1]. Scholars came from great distances to
lodge in the academy, with the most important scholar holding the rank of Great
Prefect. Notable scholars who worked at the academy included the Daoist 道家 philosophers Tian
Pian 田騈, Shen Dao 愼到, and Peng Meng 彭蒙; Zou Yan 鄒衍, Zou
Shi 鄒奭, founders of the Yin-Yang school 陰陽家學派創始者 of philosophy; the Mohist 墨家 philosopher Song
Xing 宋鈃; and the Confucian 儒家 philosophers Mencius
孟子, Xun Zi 荀子, and Chunyu Kun 淳于髡.
The Shiji 史記 says that "the king of Qi 齊宣王 favoured these scholars. From Chunyu Kun down he gave
them all the rank of ministers and honoured them by building large mansions,
broad avenues and imposing gates for them. This was to show the proteges of
other rulers that the king of Qi was a good patron."
"The most prominent scholars were called 'Master' (先生 xiān-sheng) and their
rank was equivalent to that of a higher-ranking official (上 大夫 Shàng dà-fū) at the Qi
court. They received very generous stipends and were exempt from daily
administrative tasks." During its heyday, the Jixia Academy was the center
of learning in China.
Among other works inspired by or begun at the Jixia
Academy, the "Guanzi 管子 essay 'Neiye' 內業 (Inward training) is the oldest received writing on the subject of the cultivation of vapor
and meditation techniques. The essay was probably composed at the Jixia Academy
in Qi in the late fourth century BC."
The Jixia Academy throve until the reign of King Min of
Qi. In 284 BC, Linzi 臨淄 was taken by the army of Yan 燕國 Yān'guó and the scholars
of the Academy were scattered.
However, Jixia has continuously formed a backbone of
Chinese as well as Oriental scholarship and philosophies until now and into the
future of the world.
According to the Records of the Grand Historian 史記, the Jixia Academy
inspired jealousy among leaders of other states, including Lü Buwei 呂不韋(291–235 BC), chief minister of Qin, who became the patron of thousands of scholars in
Qin between 250 and 238 B.C. He served as Chancellor of China 宰相 zǎixiàng or 丞相 chéngxiàng for King Zhuangxiang of Qin 秦莊襄王, and as regent and Chancellor for the king's young son Ying
Zheng (嬴政), who became Qin
Shi Huang 秦始皇, the first Emperor of China. Lü Buwei notably sponsored an encyclopedic
compendium of Hundred Schools of Thought philosophies, the 239 BCE Lüshi
Chunqiu 呂氏春秋
There is widespread agreement that the Yanzi Chunqiu [晏子春秋] (The Spring and
Autumn Annals of Minister Yan Ying) was an anthology of the writings of Jixia
scholars. It is quite probable that it was composed by followers of Chunyu Kun.
One of the remarkable yet tragic phenomena of Chinese
history is emergence of Li Si 李斯 (280–208 BC) was the influential Prime Minister (or Chancellor) of
the feudal state and later of the Dynasty of Qin, between 246 BC and 208 BC. He
was a student of Xunzi 荀子 at Jixia Academy.
Xunzi od course refused to serve Qin Dynasty.[5]
[3] Higher Education in the Age of Internet
The spirit of Universitas Litterarum of Berlin University
spread on entire European continent and America, and shaped over two centuries
the spirit of a higher education including Oxford and Cambridge and American
higher educational system.
Should this spirit of Universitas Litterarum still be
maintained and promoted in the age of Internet? Here is an answer:
Ingeborg
Gabriel of University of Vienna delivered a lecture in Rome under the title:
Human dignity in a knowledge based society¾the role of the
university. It summarizes:
1.
In
the 13th and 14th centuries the foundations of present European culture were
laid at the transition from a feudal to an urban culture. The first
universities were founded at that time and the university as an ideal as well
as a reality was and is part of this culture.
The word, universitas, contains the
programme of the institution: the search for and the teaching of knowledge in
its universality, the universitas litterarum.
2.
The
second part of the programme of the university is that as the universitas
magistrorum and studentorum it forms a community not only in the legal or
administrative sense (which is also the case) but in the strictly scientific
sense. Knowledge is to be acquired through personal discourse in a scientific community.
(The questions of Thomas of Aquinas show this in a paradigmatic, formalized
way).
3.
The
two core elements of the globally unique European concept of the university are
thus¾the
quest for the unity of knowledge, which theologically is grounded in the unity
of the creation¾and its dialogical and communal
acquisition As Plato put it beautifully in his seventh letter: By holding
discourse many times and by being together in confidence and search for the
truth suddenly a light springs up like from a flying spark (Platon 7. Brief
341c).
4.
Sociologically
we find ourselves in a period of transition from an industrial to the
knowledge-based society, which share important characteristics, but also differ
in significant aspects. Modern man since the age of enlightenment defines
himself as “worker and owner” as a homo faber, whose work transforms the world
according to his needs and creates his property, which in turn protects his
liberty. For Enlightenment philosophy (as well as for Marx) work therefore
constitutes the central pursuit of man. [Homo faber
suae quisque fortunae; Man shapes his own fate; man is the blacksmith of his
fate] Appius Claudius Caecus
5.
In
this context the first and foremost aim of science was and is its usability for
production through technical inventions and their potential usage in the
economy. This utilitarian approach led to a grave crisis in the university
system at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. Between
1790 and 1820 many universities in the German speaking countries were closed
and replaced by technical schools, which were to give technical training
directly applicable for the working process. The natural sciences insofar as
they serve as the basis for technical science and economic progress acquired a
position of dominance.
6.
This
situation is not far from todays. The complaints about the marginalization of
the humanities are nearly identical in Newman’s Idea of the University and in
current writings on university issues, as those of Ralf Dahrendorf and Hans
Grimm, the president of the German Fakultatentag (Professor’s Association).
Behind this lie however deeper anthropological questions, which help to better
understand the problem.
7.
Natural
sciences produce knowledge, which can contribute to the “wealth of nations”: In
societies where wealth has become the main and only aim, which can command
public consensus, this priority of the applied sciences reflects the basic
interests of the society and consequently politics and its view of the common
good as consisting in economic growth.
8.
But
there also existed from the very beginning strong counter-movement against the
functionalization of knowledge:
9.
Adam
Smith, the founder of modern economics, who was a moral philosopher by
profession saw - with admirable farsightedness, that the monotony the division
of labor in industrial society demanded has de-humanizing effects on the
labourer who “becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human
creature to become, his sentiments become stunted, and he becomes altogether
incapable of judging.” (A. Smith, Wealth of nations, Book V/1). Adam Smith
therefore pled for widespread universal education as a public good.
10.
The
idea of the universitas litterarum was revived in Germany at the beginning of
the 19th century by Wilhelm von Humboldt, who defended the ideal of universal
knowledge on humanistic grounds and on the basis of Romantic ideas.
11.
Firstly
on financial premises: globalization processes undermine national economies and
lead to an increase of competition in the economic sphere. Public goods and
services including the universities loose public support and financing and get
under increasing pressure to proof their usefulness in a situation of
increasing worldwide economic competition.
12.
The
radical changes in society and in work, e.g. the fact that the traditional ways
of fulltime und lifelong employment are becoming the exception rather than the
rule, confront the individual with a high degree of uncertainty, and the ever
increasing need for professional and personal flexibility. Flexibility
originally means the ability of a tree to bend and consequently get back into
an upright position. Applied to human beings flexibility therefore means that
they despite all adaptations they need to make in work and personal life have a
firm core or personality centre which enables them to remain themselves and
that is also creative human beings.
13.
Whereas
in industrial society the monotony of work had potentially dehumanizing effects
in a knowledge based society it is the information flood (the word is
evocative) which endangers human integrity. E. g. the use of the internet
creates a magnificent sense of universality. I can get the information from it for
which I formerly had to visit libraries around the world and I can find out
about any subject I happen to be interested in. This offers an easy access to
universal knowledge former generations could not even dream of.
14.
This
is also a metaphor for the problem the person is confronted with today: the
fragmentation of its knowledge, values and ultimately personality.
15.
University
education is more than functional education for work or a mere presentation of
disperate facts. It is the place where students as the future leaders of the
community are taught to make sense of their knowledge in their own subjects, to
question given answers and to acquire a basic knowledge of the anthropological,
cultural and ultimately religious issues which are important for human life. It
is also a place where students should learn to communicate their ideas to
others, to discuss in structured and fruitful way, to develop a culture of
discourse which lies at the basis of political life. This will also enable them
to contribute to their own science, the common good in democratic societies and
in a rapidly changing globalizing world which requires the respect of others
and other cultures and therefore needs a good understanding of one’s own.
http://www.universitas2000.org/eventi/simposio/2004_2005/IngeborgGabriel.pdf
The word university is derived from the Latin universitas
magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and
scholars" or a world of teachers and students
[4] Globalization of Higher
Education
The outlook of globalization
of Higher Education is pessimistic and dehumanizing not only individuals, but
the entire society as well. Imagine students watching Richard Feynman’s physics
lecture in front of a jumbotron screen or electronic dispay board. You don’t need
a single physics professor in entire world. Laboratory experiments are more
impressing whether they are medical or veterinary anatomy or hadron experiments
in CERN. Virtual laboratories let you walk in the laboratories, sit in front of
experiments, and touch the machine. They are not DVD that the professors use as
an aid for teaching; they are controlled by the Wall Street on a VOD (Video on
demand and simulcast on any language) and well protected as intellectual
properties.
Fantastic! We don’t need
universities or teachers. Tuition is much cheaper, and you don’t have to
commute. You don’t have to be away from your home Mommy cooks hot homemade
foods to go to a university town. We need a few technicians who babysit us. Is
it a second coming of the Brave New World or the end of education?
University is a community, and
man’s activity is a part of communal activity. Globalization destroys the very
sense of community concept. It dehumanizes and demoralizes. In globalization
man is isolated, neglected, and abandoned. It is a world of David Riesman’s
Lonely Crowd.[6]
Real community is a small community. A community of Ernst Fritz
Schumacher’s Small Is Beautiful. Even the economy should not be of the monopolized
financial capitalism, but a Buddhist economy as coined and described in the
Chapter Four of Schumacher’s Book.[7]
Can and should a professor, a
moral man according to Fichte, be reduced to globalized automata? Our
government like many others pursues this uncharted deadly course. Who could
rescue the nation from this danger? We have to rediscover our own Renaissance,
not the Renaissance as an escape from the Dark Middle Age, but by healing the
West and Western civilization as prescribed in Ezra Pound’s Cantos and reviving
our Classics.
2
[1]
The structure of language, and identity of nation state.
Indiscriminately
driving of English language exerts tremendous pressure on everyone who lives in
Korea without examining the benefits and harms it creates. It does not mean
that we should not learn foreign languages. In academia, professors are forced
to give lectures in English. This educational policy creates mental stress
among students as well to the teachers. It creates a deep moral dilemma as
well. Philosophical and sociological legitimacy of English in a non-English
country is not well founded either. Even at elementary school English language
becomes a measure of children’s superiority in ability and economic viability. Such
a dangerous language policy makes the entire nation suffer from social
schizophasia 分裂性語言 and/or paraphasia 言語錯亂, and finally
cripples to a society of full of lingo orphans. Arts, literature, roman, music,
science, and social fabric composed of variety of these ingredients have no
proper acceptance in their own cultural niche. The frame coordinates of all
cultures, tradition, law, logic, and customs is the language. In these respects,
I will examine the language itself, and its proper place in epistemology and
history.
Function
of Language
Our
current understanding of language has two purposes, namely thought process and
communicative vehicle: We formulate our thought through language and we
communicate each other through language. These two seemingly different
functions of language are so closely interwoven that one without the other
cannot stand alone. Language as a communicative process exists not only in
human being but in animal kingdom also as it is derived from the Latin word lingua for tongue. Inseparability of
thought and communication further demonstrates that thought process exists in
all the social animals no matter how primitive they would be. Much earlier in
the Hellenistic civilization Logos (logoV) which comes
originally from legō (lέgw) meaning talk,
tell and speak was immediately extended to for describing thought, reason account,
consideration, esteem, relation, proportion, analogy and similar mental exercise.
Greek philosophy flourished due precisely to the application of logoV and lέgw along with
πάθος (pathos) and ηθος (ethos) which are again manifested in lέgw (legō).
In
order to expand the horizon of knowledge we use, in addition, symbols and
develop a new branch of science of semiotics. Leibniz, the founder of calculus
(differential/integral equation) and mathematical symbols, has been the first
western mathematician and philosopher occupied with language and symbol. He is
deeply involved in the study of Chinese characters and imagoarithmetica or semioarithmetica 象數學.¶ or imagoarithmetics. As a sinophile,
Leibniz was aware of the I Ching 易經 and noted with
fascination how its hexagrams 六十四卦 correspond to
the binary numbers from 0 to 111111 and concluded that this mapping was
evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical
mathematics he admired. 64 Hexagram is an 8x8 matrix of trigram 八卦
from where Korean national flag is derived.
L'invention
de cette langue depend de la vraye Philosophie; car il est impossible autrement
de denombrer toutes les pensées des hommes, et de les mettre par ordre, ny
seulement de les distinguer en sorte qu'elles soient claires et simples; qui
est à mon advis le plus grand secret qu'on puisse avoir pour acquerir la bonne
science; [et si quelqu'un avoit bien
expliqué quelles sont les idées simples qui sont en l'imagination des hommes,
desquelles se compose tout ce qu'ils pensent, et que cela fust receu par tout
le monde, i'oserois esperer ensuite une langue universelle fort aisée à
aprendre, à prononcer, et à écrire et ce qui est le principal, qui ayderoit au
iugement, luy representant si distinctement toutes choses, qu'il luy seroit
presque impossible de se tromper; au lieu que tout au rebours, les mots que
nous avons n'ont quasi que des significations confuses, ausquelles l'Esprit des
hommes s'estant acoutumé de longue main, cela est cause qu'il n'entend presque
rien parfaitement.] Or ie tiens que cette langue est possible, et qu'on
peut trouver la Science de qui elle dépend, par le moyen de laquelle les
Paysans pouroient mieux iuger de la verité des choses, que ne font maintenant
les Philosophes.[8]
The
discovery of such a language depends upon the true philosophy. For without that
philosophy it is impossible to number and order all the thoughts of men or even
to separate them into clear and simple thoughts, which in my opinion is the
great secret for acquiring true scientific knowledge.[….] I think it is
possible to invent such a language and to discover the science on which it
depends: it would make [even] peasants better judges of the truth about the
world than philosophers are now. But do not hope ever to see such language in
use. [For that, the order of nature would have to change so that the world
turned into a terrestrial paradise; and that is too much to suggest outside of
fairyland.] Translation by Jacques Derrida.[9]
Leibniz
expressly refers to this letter and to the analytical principle it formulates.
The entire project implies the decomposition into simple ideas. It is the only
way to substitute calculation for reasoning. In that sense, the universal
characteristic depends on philosophy for its principle but it may be undertaken
without waiting for the completion of philosophy.
The
characteristic 首数 幂数(미수) economizes on
the spirit and imagination, whose expense must always be husbanded. It is the
principal goal of this great science that I am used to calling Characteristic,
of which what we call Algebra, or Analysis, is only a small branch; for it is
this science that gives speech to languages, letters to speech, numbers to
arithmetic, notes to music; it teaches us the secret stabilizing reasoning, and
of obliging it to leave visible marks on the paper in a little volume, to be
examined at leisure; finally, it makes us reason at little cost, putting characters
in the place of things in order to ease the imagination.
In
spite of all the differences that separate the projects of universal language
or writing at this time (notably with respect to history and language), the
concept of simple absolute is always necessarily and indispensably involved. It
would be easy to show that it always leads to infinitist theology 無限主義神學
and to the logos or infinite understanding of God. That is why, appearances to
the contrary, and in spite of all the seduction that it can legitimately
exercise on our epoch, the Leibnizian project of a universal characteristic 万有特性 that is not
essentially phonetic does not interrupt logocentrism in any way. On the
contrary, universal logic confirms logocentrism, is produced within it and with
its help, exactly like the Hegelian critique to which it will be subjected. I
emphasize the complicity of these two contradictory movements. Within a certain
historical epoch, there is a profound unity among the inifinitist theology,
logocentrism, and a certain technicism 技術至上主義. The originary
and pre- or meta-phonetic writing that I am attempting to conceive of here
leads to nothing less than an overtaking of speech by the machine.
In
an original and non ‘relativist’ sense, logocentrism 語言中心主義
is an ethnocentric metaphysics 民族中心主義的
思辨哲學.
It is related to the history of the West. The Chinese model only apparently
interrupt it when Leibniz refers to it to teach Characteristic. Not only
does this model remain a domestic representation, but also, it is praised only
for the purpose of designating a lack and to define the necessary corrections.
What Leibniz is eager to borrow from the Chinese writing is its arbitrariness
and therefore its independence with regard to history. The arbitrariness has an
essential link with non-phonetic essence which Leibniz believes he can
attribute to Chinese writing. The latter seems to have been “invented by a deaf
man”.[9]
Cependant
quoyque cette langue depende de la vraye philosophie, elle ne depend pas de sa
perfection. C'est à dire cette langue peut estre établie, quoyque la
philosophie ne soit pas parfaite: et à mesure que la science des hommes
croistra, cette langue croistra aussi. En attendant elle sera d'un Jecours
merveilleux et pour se servir de ce que nous sçavons, et pour voir ce qui nous
manque, et pour inventer les moyens d'y arriver, mais sur tout pour exterminer
les controversies dans les matieres qui dependent du raisonnement. Car alors
raisonner et calculer sera la même chose.[8] (Although this language depends on the
true philosophy, it does not depend on its perfection. This language can be
established even if philosophy is not perfect. As men’s knowledge grows, this
language will grow as well. Meanwhile it will be of great help for using what
we know for finding out what we lack, for inventing way of redeeming the lack,
but especially for settling controversies in matters that depend on reasoning.
For then reasoning and calculating will be the same thing.)
In
a letter to Joachim Bouvet [1703], Leibniz described that:[10]
Chinese
characters are perhaps more philosophical and seem to be built upon more
intellectual considerations, such as are given by numbers, orders, and
relations, thus there are only detached strokes that do not culminate in some
resemblances to a sort of body.
However,
Leibniz did not examine the structure of Korean language. In essence Korean
language is composed logographeme and ethnocentric phoneme. Phoneme of Hanja 漢字
is always monosyllabic unlike Chinese and its construction sits in a stable
box. Not because that I am a Korean, but from philosophical and comparative
linguistic analysis Korean language is by far the most superior and advanced
language. If Leibniz knew the Korean language, he would unhesitatingly say that
the Korean language is the most philosophical one.
¶ Western
terminology for 象數學 (xiangshu xue) is not well established. There are
several possibilities such as imagoarithmetica, imagoarithmetics,
semioarithmetica, imagonumerics, imagomathematics, or semionumerics of Shao
Yong 邵雍. Throughout
this thesis, I use imagoarithmetica or semioarithmetica after careful
consideration of Leibnizian interpretation of I Ching and Fuxi 伏羲.
Anne D. Birdwhistell [9] and Don J. Wyatt [10] used image-number study for 象數學.
64
Hexagram 六十四卦
☷
坤(地)
|
☶
艮(山)
|
☵
坎(水)
|
☴
巽(風)
|
☳
震(雷)
|
☲
離(火)
|
☱
兌(泽)
|
☰
乾(天)
|
←上卦
↓下卦
|
☷
☰
11.地天泰
|
☶
☰
26.山天大畜
|
☵
☰
5.水天需
|
☴
☰
9.風天小畜
|
☳
☰
34.雷天大壮
|
☲
☰
14.火天大有
|
☱
☰
43.泽天夬
|
☰
☰
1.乾為天
|
☰
乾(天)
|
☷
☱
19.地泽臨
|
☶
☱
41.山泽損
|
☵
☱
60.水泽節
|
☴
☱
61.風泽中孚
|
☳
☱
54.雷泽歸妹
|
☲
☱
38.火泽睽
|
☱
☱
58.兌為泽
|
☰
☱
10.天泽履
|
☱
兌(泽)
|
☷
☲
36.地火明夷
|
☶
☲
22.山火賁
|
☵
☲
63.水火既濟
|
☴
☲
37.風火家人
|
☳
☲
55.雷火豊
|
☲
☲
30.離為火
|
☱
☲
49.泽火革
|
☰
☲
13.天火同人
|
☲
離(火)
|
☷
☳
24.地雷復
|
☶
☳
27.山雷頤
|
☵
☳
3.水雷屯
|
☴
☳
42.風雷益
|
☳
☳
51.震為雷
|
☲
☳
21.火雷噬嗑
|
☱
☳
17.泽雷随
|
☰
☳
25.天雷无妄
|
☳
震(雷)
|
☷
☴
46.地風升
|
☶
☴
18.山風蠱
|
☵
☴
48.水風井
|
☴
☴
57.巽為風
|
☳
☴
32.雷風恒
|
☲
☴
50.火風鼎
|
☱
☴
28.泽風大過
|
☰
☴
44.天風姤
|
☴
巽(風)
|
☷
☵
7.地水師
|
☶
☵
4.山水蒙
|
☵
☵
29.坎為水
|
☴
☵
59.風水渙
|
☳
☵
40.雷水解
|
☲
☵
64.火水未濟
|
☱
☵
47.泽水困
|
☰
☵
6.天水訟
|
☵
坎(水)
|
☷
☶
15.地山謙
|
☶
☶
52.艮為山
|
☵
☶
39.水山蹇
|
☴
☶
53.風山漸
|
☳
☶
62.雷山小過
|
☲
☶
56.火山旅
|
☱
☶
31.泽山咸
|
☰
☶
33.天山遯
|
☶
艮(山)
|
☷
☷
2.坤為地
|
☶
☷
23.山地剥
|
☵
☷
8.水地比
|
☴
☷
20.風地觀
|
☳
☷
16.雷地豫
|
☲
☷
35.火地晋
|
☱
☷
45.泽地萃
|
☰
☷
12.天地否
|
☷
坤(地)
|
Figure
1. 64 Hexagram.[11-21]
Monolemma
Culture and Civilization: Monolemma’s Dilemma
[1]
Soliloquy of Hamlet
The
logical dilemma in Western thoughts in literature is a soliloquy, the tragic lament
of Hamlet of Shakespeare.
To
be, or not to be, that is the question:
Hamlet’s
soliloquy begins with what must be the most famous line in the English canon:
“To be or not to be.” For the character at that moment, it is an important
question, literally one of “life and death”, but the general terms in which it
is phrased gives it a resonance that reaches out past Hamlet. Hamlet poses the
question on the most metaphysical level – not “shall I kill myself?”, nor “can
I live like this?” but “to be or not to be”. It is existence itself that is up
for debate in this speech.
The
form of words guarantees that Hamlet’s question will be interpreted on a
general level: the line uses one of the most basic verbs in the language, one
without which English itself would surely be impossible to speak. The verb is
then phrased in the infinitive, “to be”, rather than attaching it to any
specific noun or pronoun (not even Hamlet’s own “I”). Balancing it on the other
side of “or” is the simplest possible opposition, the same verb with a one
syllable prefix: “not”.
[2] Søren
Kierkegaard’s Either/Or
Søren
Kierkegaard explored the aesthetic and ethical "phases" or
"stages" of existence in his influential book, Either/Or. Either/Or
portrays two life views, one consciously hedonistic,
the other based on ethical duty and
responsibility.
A
common interpretation of Either/Or presents the reader with a choice between
two approaches to life. There are no standards or guidelines which indicate how
to choose. The reasons for choosing an ethical way of life over the aesthetic
only make sense if one is already committed to an ethical way of life.
Suggesting the aesthetic approach as evil implies one has already accepted the
idea that there is a good/evil distinction to be made. Likewise, choosing an
aesthetic way of life only appeals to the aesthete, ruling Judge Vilhelm's
ethics as inconsequential and preferring the pleasures of seduction. Thus,
existentialists see Victor Eremita as presenting a radical choice in which no
pre-ordained value can be discerned. One must choose, and through one's
choices, one creates what one is. Such dichotomic choice, either/or, stems from
Western linguistic atrocity.
[3] Aristotelian
logic
Western
civilization of both Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian traditions is based on
Aristotelian logic such as the law of excluded middle on the one hand, and
biblical dogmatic choice between evil and good, eternal life and death, and
heaven and inferno on the other. One is destined to choose only between these
two. It is a coercion, and one is never be free.
The
three classic laws of thought of the West are attributed to Aristotle and were
foundational in scholastic logic. However, Hegel expanded in his The Science of
Logic as:
law
of identity 同一律 (Aristotle)
Law
of identity is inaccurate because a thing is always more than itself (Hegel)
law
of noncontradiction 無矛盾律 (Aristotle)
Law
of non-contradiction is inaccurate because everything in existence is both
itself and not itself (Hegel)
law
of excluded middle 中排論 (Aristotle)
Law
of excluded middle is inaccurate because a thing can be both itself and many
others (Hegel)
Hegel
wanted to liberate from Aristotle, but he cannot be free as long as the logic
proposition is based on the same linguistic niche.
However,
Søren Kierkegaard rejected Hegel, despite of its incompleteness, because man
has no choice in his ethical determination. Hegel’s criticism of excluded
middle is not law of included middle 中含論(法包括中間).
Recently,
Graham Priest pointed out that under some conditions, some statements can be
both true and false simultaneously, or may be true and false at different
times. Applied universally, without specified conditions or axiomatic
restrictions, this dialetheism will cause every statement, to explode, to
become true. Dialetheism 雙面眞理說 arises from
formal logical paradoxes, such as the Liar's paradox and Russell's paradox.
Dialetheism
is the view that some statements can be both true and false simultaneously.
More precisely, it is the belief that there can be a true statement whose
negation is also true. Such statements are called "true
contradictions" or dialetheia.
Dialetheism
雙面眞理說 is not a system of formal logic;
instead, it is a hypothesis that can be introduced as an axiom within
pre-existing systems of formal logic. Introducing dialetheism has various
consequences, depending on the theory into which it is introduced. For example,
in traditional systems of logic (e.g., classical logic and intuitionistic
logic), every statement becomes true if a contradiction is true; this means
that such systems become trivial when dialetheism is included as an axiom.
Other logical systems do not explode in this manner when contradictions are
introduced; such contradiction-tolerant 矛盾許容 systems are
known as paraconsistent [inconsistency-tolerant 不一致許容]
logics.
Traditionally,
in Aristotle's classical logical calculus, in evaluating any proposition there
are only two possible truth values, "true" and "false." An
obvious extension to classical two-valued logic is a many-valued logic for more
than two possible values. In logic, a many- or multi-valued logic is a
propositional calculus in which there are more than two values. Those most
popular in the literature are three-valued (e.g., Łukasiewicz's and Kleene's),
which accept the values "true", "false", and
"unknown", finite-valued with more than three values, and the
infinite-valued (e.g. fuzzy logic and probability logic) logics.
The
‘becoming’ ontology 變化過程的形成 本体論
The
‘becoming’ ontology according to the Western tradition, Heraclitus wrote a
treatise about nature named "Perì phýseōs", "About Nature,"
in which appears the famous aphorism "panta rei [os potamòs]"
translated literally as "the whole flows [as a river]," or figuratively
as "everything flows, nothing stands still." The concept of
"becoming" in philosophy is strictly connected with two others:
movement and evolution, as ‘becoming’ assumes a ‘changing to’ and a ‘moving
toward.’ The philosophy of ‘becoming’ recently received attention from
eschatological process on the one hand and irreversible thermodynamics of Lars
Onsager and Ilya Prigogine on the other. The former is the Christian theology
of ‘becoming’ from Son of Man to Son of God, and the latter the science of the
process of ‘becoming’ for the formation of life from primordial soup to Teilhard
de Chardin’s Omega (W) point. Heraclitian ‘becoming’
philosophy is very probably of oriental philosophical origin. In addition, Teilhard
de Chardin spent most of his life in China. He is better known under his name 德日進
Dérìjìn in China. The concept of his noosphere 精神界 derived from the Greek nous (mind) + sphaira (sphere)
as the final stage after atmosphere (atmos=vapor + sphaera=氣界)
and biosphere (bio=life + sphaera=生命系). His cosmogenesis
are clearly influenced by Laozi’s 老子 Dao De Jing 道德經
and by Guifeng Zongmi (圭峰 宗密 780-841) Zongmi 宗密
is the most influential Buddhist philosopher of Dang Dynasty 唐朝,
whose sphere of influence stretched to Korea and Japan. Zongmi’s thought is
transmitted to Korea and Japan and further developed by Jinul (普照國師 知訥; 1158–1210). According to Zongmi,
遠則混沌 一氣剖為陰陽之二、二生天地人三、三生萬物。萬物與人 皆氣為本
In the beginning there was a Chaos, the
one pneuma of the primordial Chaos divided into the dyad of Yin and Yang, the
two engendered the triad of heaven, earth, and human beings, and the three
engendered the myriad things. The myriad things and human beings all have the
pneuma as their origin.[21]
It
is reminiscent of Dao De Jing 道德經 in that Dao (道)
has no reference 基準 and that Zongmi’s primordial Chaos corresponds
to Wuji 無極 which originally meant
"ultimateless; boundless; infinite" in Daoist classics, yet came to
mean the "primordial universe" prior to the Taiji 太極
"Supreme Ultimate" in Song Dynasty (960-1279) Neo-Confucianist
cosmology 性理學宇宙論.
In
an array of logical propositions, we face a dilemma. What is a dilemma? It is a
combination of two words, di (two) and lemma (proposition 引理). In mathematics, a lemma (plural lemmata or
lemmas from the Greek λήμμα, "lemma" meaning "anything which is
received, such as a gift, profit, or a bribe") is a proven proposition
which is used as a stepping stone to a larger result rather than as a statement
in-and-of itself. A good stepping stone leads to many others, so some of the
most powerful results in mathematics are known as lemmata, such as Gauss's
lemma and Poincaré's lemma, There is no formal distinction between a lemma and
a theorem, only one of usage and convention.
Dilemma
First attested 1523, from Late Latin dilemma, from Ancient Greek δίλημμα
(dilēmma, “double proposition”), from δι- + λημμα (tow lēmma, “premise,
proposition”).
How
about multilemma? Trilemma is conceived as a circumstance in which a choice
must be made between three options that seem equally undesirable. In logic, a
syllogism containing three alternatives that each infer the same conclusion.
When
we examine the logic, whether it is Aristotelian or Hegelian, it seems that one
treats logic as a particle, let’s say, logicon (理子 邏輯子).
In fact, Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein adhered to logical atomism (邏輯原子主義)
similar to my jargon. Later they abandoned it. Monolemma does not rescue
Western civilization and dilemma brings chaos.
Meanwhile,
in the advent of the twentieth Century, Science is confronted with linguistic
problem of Western language in describing wave particle duality for a single
phenomenon of a single noumenon. They coined it wavicle in order to get out of
this mess. De Broglie relation succinctly describes it, but the Western
language is not rescued from dichotomic nature of Western language as
exemplified in previous section. Many attempts to substitute it by mathematical
symbols. However, wavicle is not an entity; it is a continuum. Western language
itself is not free from this logical proposition.
Subsequent
confusions arise in distinguishing between the classical Hamiltonian and wave
functions. The logic imbedded in the Western language does not allow transition
from deterministic to probabilistic description albeit symbols like ¶ and Y.
Could
this confusion and insolvency be rescued by the oriental languages that are
deeply absorbed in the Chinese characters where Korean language is an integral
part of this ethno-linguistic tradition? Not straightforward. Let us examine
the fundamental aspect of Chinese Characters.
Ideologographeme
形意語素字位
Primitive structural basis of Chinese Character is
ideogram or ideograph
形意文字 (from Greek ideo=idea + grafo=write). Ideogram is
a graphic symbol that represents an idea or concept. Some ideograms are
comprehensible only by familiarity with prior convention; others convey their
meaning through pictorial resemblance to a physical object, and thus may also
be referred to as pictograms 象形圖.
Logogram, or logograph 語素文字, is a grapheme 字位 which represents a word or a morpheme 語素 (the smallest meaningful unit of language). This stands in contrast to
phonograms 表音文字, which represent phonemes 音位 (speech sounds) or combinations of phonemes, and determinatives,
which mark semantic categories.
Chinese
characters started with "ideograms", but now after long historical
and philosophical evolution, the Chinese characters have solely of logographic nature.
The character set is broken into pictograms (象形字),
semantic-phonetic compounds (形聲字), simple
ideographs (指事字),
logical aggregates (會意字), associate transformations (轉注字),
and phonetic loan characters (假借字) Others terms
include Sinogram 漢字 emphasizing the
Chinese origin of the characters, and Han character, a literal translation of
the native term. The native terms (Chinese hanzi
(漢字),
Japanese kanji, Korean hanja) are also fairly widespread in the contexts
of the individual languages.
When
Max Planck delivered a lecture in 1923 at the University of Beijing, Hu Gang Fu 胡剛復 hú gāng fù
of Harvard physicist, then the interpreter, introduced
a new Chinese Character 熵 for Entropy, pronouncing shāng. The corresponding enthalpy was 焓(han 함 heat content). These two words are certainly of logographic origin. When you consult
the MS Office Korean-Chinese conversion table, you realize it is pronounced as 啇(di 적), not shāng 상, such as 滴 (di water drop), 敵 (di enemy), 適 (shì fit) etc. Apparently, they were confused 商 with 啇. So many such errors are noticed in Korean Internet milieu.
此外 曾在1923年 陪同 德國科學家 普朗克 (Max
Planck) 來中國講學。講學時用到 entropy一詞,胡剛復在翻譯時 靈機一動,把“商”字加火旁來意譯此詞,創造了“熵”字,發音同“商”。 http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/%E8%83%A1%E5%89%9B%E5%BE%A9
☰ 陽 乾(天) ☷ 陰 坤(地)
where
a single solid line represents 0 and a single broken line 1. The Yin-Yang
concept of Fuxi 伏羲 led Leibniz to construct
and formulate his seminal work, Explication de l'arithmétique binaire (1705)
[Explanation of binary arithmetic][7].
In
describing the nature, the dichotomical nature of western language often
hinders further development of cognitive horizon as the subject has been seriously
concerned by Walter Gerlach of Stern-Gerlach experiment and Werner Heisenberg’s
Gedankenexperiment.
Rescue
or not, let us look at the oriental Yin-Yang 陰陽.
Yin and Yang are not opposing forces (dualities), but complementary opposites
that interact within a greater whole, as part of a dynamic system. Everything
has both yin and yang aspects as light cannot exist without darkness and
vice-versa, but either of these aspects may manifest more strongly in
particular objects, and may ebb or flow over time. The concept of yin and yang
is often symbolized by various forms of the Taijitu 太極圖
symbol, for which it is probably best known in western cultures. In other word,
there is no such decision making as to whether the thing is either Yin or Yang.
More Yin or more Yang may be possible, but the fundamentality is not of
the Aristotelian logical exclusion of the
middle.
There
is a misperception particularly in the West that Yin and Yang correspond to
evil and good, to be or not to be, or truth and falsehood in the Western logic.
However, Taoist philosophy generally rejects good/bad, to be/not to be, or
truth or falsehood distinctions and other dichotomous logical and moral
judgments, in preference to the idea of balance.
In
the I Ching 易經, yin-yang is represented by broken and
solid lines: yang is solid and yin is broken. These are then combined into
trigrams, which are more yang or more yin depending on the number of broken and
solid lines (e.g., ☰ is heavily yang, while ☷ is heavily yin),
and trigrams are combined into hexagrams (see Figure 1. 64 Hexagram). The
Yin-Yang, not Yin and Yang, flows continuously. They are not particles. The
relative positions and numbers of yin and yang lines within the trigrams
determine the meaning of a trigram, and in hexagrams the upper trigram is
considered yang with respect to the lower trigram, allowing complex depictions of
interrelations (see Figure 1. 64 Hexagram). In the Dao De Jing 道德經,
Chapter 42, we see:
The
Dao produced One; One produced Two; Two produced Three; Three produced All
things [道生一 一生二 二生三 三生萬物]. All things[萬物]
under heaven sprang from It[道]
as existing (and named); that existence sprang from It[道] as
non-existent (and not named) [天下萬物生於有 有生於無] [Chapter 40 of Dao De Jing 道德經].
It is a 『Becoming
process』from a
primordial or hidden Noumenon 本 to Phenomenon 顯,
a long process of cosmovolution 宇宙演化思想[9]
This
cyclical nature of Yin-Yang is not a discrete quantity, but rather a continuum,
and opens up the Western linguistic impasse. It cannot be defined as dichotomy
or juxtaposition in the way we are accustomed to the Western thought process.
Loqui
est voce articulata signum dare cogitationis sure. Scribere est id facere
permanentibus in charta ductibus. Quos ad vocem referri non est necesse, ut
apparet ex Sinensium characteribus.
[Speech
is to give the sign of one’s thought with articulated voice. Writing is to do
it with permanent characters on paper. The latter need not be referred back to
the voice, as is obvious from the characters of Chinese script.]
Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz, Opuscules, page 497 in INTELLECTUS EXPRESSIO, TABLE DE
DÉFINITIONS
3
[1]
Competition or Symbiosis?
Simple
statistics convinces us that, if such discoveries develop at a rate
characteristic for recent years, in the relatively near future the majority of
tissues and organs in animals and plants will be transferred to the category of
symbiogenetic phenomena.[23]
Boris Kozo-Polyansky,
Symbiogenesis 1924, English Translation by Victor Fet
Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, Mass., 2010, Page 102
The
word ‘competition’ is the mantra in the Korean society as a whole. It is
rampant throughout the nation among children, academia, business, and whatever
you name it. The unlimited competition [無限競爭] is considered as virtue and becomes a
way of living philosophy in Korea and some of capitalistic nations. It is an
infectious disease along with preference of English language over its own
native language, philosophy, and tradition. I would like to examine thoroughly
as to whether we should adapt and promote this decaying social behavior. We
find the competition in the root of Western civilization, particularly in the
era of neoliberal financial capitalism. If it is the last stage of capitalism,
it means also the end of capitalism.
Herbert
Spencer, coined word ‘the survival of the fittest 最適者生存’,
which unexamined has driven the capitalist world into bloody competition: an
individual’s welfare at the expenses of neighborhood. Later Charles Darwin
inserted this sentence into the fifth edition of his Origin of Species without
much thoughtful consideration. Social Darwinism, the concept advocated by Spencer,
once dominated the mind of Capitalism while now out of major political
literature, insidiously penetrated into the mind of innocent
people without notice.
Competition
exists in all level of instinct from food to sex. Competition is not an adaptation.
It is not an evolutionary scheme based on the natural selection. It is
devolution. There is no single literature that supports that competition
contributes to the evolution. To a society as a whole it is a single
destructive element.
Competition
in a social perspective weakens the social fabric and finally disintegrates the
society and falls to prey of the international predators.
In
Korea, every year about 15,000 men and women commit suicide, among which 400
university students take their lives due mostly to academic or financial
pressure.
More
than 150,000 people, about 10 times of suicide, seriously contemplate it or
visit psychiatrist for help. Competition causes depression and suicide and
ruins the nation. What use even if the competition Depression, the precursor of
suicide, destroys family, causes divorce, jeopardize social life, and finally
cost the society he or she dwells in. This number is alarmingly increases. How
much schizophasia/paraphasia and competition contribute to these malaise? Right
here in this KAIST another student committed suicide.
Should
we resort ourselves to the serotonin level of the individuals? The answer is
No. Most of psychiatric abnormalities including depressions, bipolar
depression, Parkinsonism, and dementia of all sorts are of environmental
origin. We are the cause of these diseases. We made it and therefore we ought
to cure it and prevent it.
Have
we ever thought that the very concept of competition is of origin of Western
linguistics?
Emergence
of Symbiogenesis
At
the time the Bolshevik revolution swept the entire Russia, there has undergone
a rather quiet revolution in Biological Science unnoticed to the rest of the
world. "Symbiogenesis", a term first coined by the Russian botanist
K.S. Merezhkovsky in the late 19th century, is the evolution of new life forms,
from the physical union of different, once-independent partners. Liya Khakhina
traces the development of the concept in Russian and Soviet scientific
literature, reviewing the contributions of Merezhkovsky, A.S. Famintsyn, B.M.
Kozo-Polyansky and other prominent Russian scientists, to theories of symbiosis
in evolution.[23-28]
The greatest advancement in the
understanding of biological evolution is a formation of eukaryotes from two prokaryotes.
Incorporation of mitochondria is another manifestation of the biological
evolution. Entire animal kingdom evolves as a result of mutual aid.[29]
References
1
1550s, in phrase jobbe of worke "piece of work"
(contrasted with continuous labor), perhaps
a variant of gobbe "mass, lump" (c.1400; see gob). Sense of
"work done for pay" first recorded 1650s. Slang meaning
"specimen, thing, person" is from 1927. The verb is attested from
1660s. On the job "hard at work" is from 1882. Job lot is from
obsolete sense of "cartload, lump," which might also ultimately be
from gob. job. (1) A low mean lucrative busy affair. (2) Petty,
piddling work; a piece of chance work. [Johnson's Dictionary]
2
The popular works of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Volume I,
translated from German by William Smith, London: Trübner & Co., Ludgate
Hall, 1889.
3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unter_den_Linden
4
Jixia Academy 稷下學宮 is the first University in the world consisting of 80 professors and 3,000 students. Literally
translated it is called Learning Palace.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jixia_Academy
5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Si
6
David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd, Revised edition: A Study
of the Changing American Character, Yale University Press, 2001.
7
E. F. Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful, 25th Anniversary
Edition: Economics As If People Mattered: 25 Years Later . . . With
Commentaries, Hartley and Marks Publishers, 2000.
8
Opuscules
et Fragments Inédits de Leibniz, Felix Alcan, Éditeur, Ancienne Libraire Germer
Bailliére etiére et Cie, 108, Boulevard Saint-Germain, 1903, Paris. Page 28.
9
Jacques
Derrida, Of Gramatology [De la Gramatologie], The Johns Hopkins University
Press, Baltimore and London, 1997. Page 78.
10
http://ads.ccsd.cnrs.fr/ads-00104781_v1/ (Original
French Version)
http://www.leibniz-translations.com/binary.htm (English
translation)
11
Anne
Birdwhistell, Transition to Neo-Confucianism [朱子學 或 性理學]: Shao Yung
[Shao Yong 邵雍]
on Knowledge and Symbols of Reality. Stanford University Press, 1989
12
Don
J. Wyatt, The Recluse of Loyang [Louyang 洛陽]: Shao Yung and
the Moral Evolution of Early Sung Thought, University of Hawaii Press, 1996
13
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba_gua
14
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Ching
15
http://www.fourpillars.net/pdf/kingwen.pdf
16
http://www.64gua.com/ebook/zyj/html/02.html
17
For
further explanation of trigram (八卦), hexagram (六十四卦), I Ching (易經), and Shao Yong
(邵雍), see
http://www.baidu.com
18
Noam
Chomsky. (2002): Syntactic Structures (2nd Edition) Walter de Gruyter; 2nd
edition.
19
Noam
Chomsky. (2006): Language and Mind (3rd Edition). New York: Cambridge University
Press.
20
Noam
Chomsky, Biolinguistics and the Human Capacity
Lecture
at MTA, Budapest, May 17, 2004
http://www.nytud.hu/chomsky/lect.html
21
Peter
Gregory, Inquiry Into the Origin of Humanity: An Annotated Translation of
Tsung-Mi's Yuan Jen Lun with a Modern Commentary (Classics in East Asian
Buddhism), University of Hawaii Press, 1995. This excellent translation is a
source for understanding Northeast Asian Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛敎.
Original title is Origin of Life 原因論. Peter Gregory
translated it under somewhat different English title.
22
Life
and Universe manifested in Phenomenological World,
http://quovadis.tistory.com/entry/현상세계現象世界에서-현시顯示되는-생명과-우주
23
Boris
Kozo-Polyansky, Symbiogenesis 1924, English Translation by Victor Fet, Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2010, Page 102
24
Liya
Nikolaevna Khakhina, Concepts of Symbiogenesis: A Historical and Critical Study
of the Research of Russian Botanists (Bio-Origins Series), Yale University
Press, New Heaven, 1992.
25
Ivan
E. Wallin, Symbionticism and the Origin of Species, Williams & Wilkins,
Baltimore, 1927.
26
Jan
Sapp, Evolution by Association: A History of Symbiosis, Oxford University
Press, New York, 1994.
27
Jan
Sapp, The New Foundations of Evolution: On the Tree of Life, Oxford University
Press, New York, 2009.
28
Paul.
Buchner, Tier und Pflanze in intrazellularer Symbiose, Springer Verlag, Berlin,
1921. [Paul Buchner, Endosymbiosis of Animals with Plant Microorganisms, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Interscience Publ., New York, 1965].
29
Petr
Kropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, 1902, reproduced by Forgotten
Books, 2010. http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/4341/pg4341.html