The KAIST Lecture 2012.05.14:16:00

 

Spirit and Responsibility of Higher Education

 

Kang Sungzong 姜成宗

Axon Neuroscience Laboratories for Alzheimer’s Dementia and Bipolar Depression

9 Willow Avenue at Rockleigh Road

Rockleigh, New Jersey 07647-2707

http://viaxon.com & http://biodyne.com

viaxon@gmail.com & viagen@gmail.com

 

 

Education is the art of making men ethical

[Die Pädagogik ist die Kunst, die Menschen sittlich zu machen]

G.W.F. Hegel, Rechtsphilosophie, § 151

  

1

  

1 [Universitas Litterarum]

 

The Korean higher education is in crossroad. It is fortunate in a sense that the period of blind obsession with growth reached a certain maturity, and that it is time we have to look back at our past and to quest for an opportunity for a new social order in the further advancement of not only of material wellbeing but also of the spiritual enrichment of the nation. Korea is at this juncture here and now, and the university and higher education in general sit right in the center of this complex problem and must seek for the answer as to what kind of role it ought to play in shaping the nation. It is the central question I would like to address in this prestigious institution. The academic position is not called job.[1] It is called vocation. Vocation comes from the Latin vocare meaning to call by God to do something for salvation of mankind. It is considered man’s noble activity. The academic position you have now is associated with those spirit and responsibility. Students are also a part of this community as Universitas Litterarum is contained in a programme of the universitas magistrorum and studentorum. Some 200 years ago in the West Johann Gottlieb Fichte delivered series of lectures in 1794 on the subject of the vocation of the Scholar, the vocation of man in a society, and the absolute vocation of man at Jena, Berlin, Erlangen and Königsberg, and the Nature of the Scholar delivered in 1805 at Erlangen. At the time of Fichte entire European higher education was in crisis similar we are experiencing in these days here in Korea and globalized educational landscapes of the world: marginalization of the core function of the universities. His main points in his deliveries to the Scholars and university professors are [2]:

1.      Knowledge is itself a branch of human culture; that branch must itself be further advanced if all the faculties of man are to be continuously developed; hence it is the duty of the Scholar, as of every man who has chosen a particular condition of life, to strive for the advancement of knowledge, and chiefly of his own peculiar department of knowledge; it is his duty as it is the duty of every man in his own department; yes, it is much more than his duty.

2.      The mere knowledge, however, of the faculties and wants of man, without an acquaintance with the means of developing and satisfying them, would be not only a most sorrowful and discouraging, but also a vain and perfectly useless, acquirement. This would not be such knowledge as society requires, and for which a particular class of men is needed, to whom the possession of it may be committed; for this knowledge does not aim at the perfection of the species [Pure Reason and philosophical], and through that perfection at its harmonious combination, as it ought to do: hence to this knowledge of wants there must be added a knowledge of the means by which they may be satisfied; and this knowledge properly devolves upon the same class, because the one cannot be complete, and still less can it be active and living, without the other [philosophical-historical].

3.      If, however, this knowledge is to become useful to the society, it is not sufficient to ascertain what faculties belong essentially to man, and through what means they may be developed; such knowledge would still remain quite unproductive. It must proceed a step farther, in order to secure the wished-for benefits; we must also know on what particular grade of cultivation the society to which we belong stands at a particular point of time; to what particular stage it has next to ascend, and what are the means at its command for that purpose.

4.      There are many tendencies and powers in man, and it is the vocation of each individual to cultivate all his powers, so far as he is able to do so. Among others is the social impulse; which offers him a new and peculiar form of cultivation, - that for society – and afford an unusual facility for culture in general. There is nothing prescribed to man on this subject; whether he shall cultivate all his faculties as a whole, unaided and by nature alone, or mediated through society.

5.      On the ground of Reason alone [reiner Vernunft of Kant] we can calculate the direction which human progress must take; we can declare approximately the particular steps by which it must pass to the attainment of a definite stage of cultivation; but to declare the particular step on which it actually stands at a given point of time is impossible for Reason alone; for this, Experience must be questioned, the event of the past must be examined, but with an eye of philosophy [historical].

6.      The three branches of knowledge [Pure Reason-Philosophical, Philosophical-Historical, and Historical], when combined together, constitute what is called learning, and he who devotes his life to the acquisition of this knowledge is a Scholar. He further develops his academic and moral principle as follows:

7.      The scholar is the Guide of the human race.

8.      The ultimate purpose of each individual man, as well as of all society, and consequently of all the labors of the Scholar in society, is the moral elevation of all men. It is the duty of the Scholar to have this final object constantly in view, and never to lose sight of it in all that he does in society. But no one can successfully labor for the moral improvement of his species who is not himself a good man. We don’t teach by words alone, and we also teach much more impressively by example; everyone who lives in society owes it a good example, because the power of example has its origin in the social relation.

9.      How much more is this due from the Scholar, who ought to be before all of others in every branch of human culture?

Fichte compares the Scholar to the biblical statement: Ye are the salt of the earth: if the salt have lost its savor, wherewith shall it be salted? If chosen among men be depraved, where shall we seek for moral good?

10.  Thus, the scholar ought to be the best man of his age. He ought to exhibit in himself the highest grade of moral culture then possible.

 

In this period of time, Friedrich the Great, with help of Wilhelm von Humboldt, Minister of Education was eager to have an ideal educational system representing Universtas Litterarum [a world of letters] for entire world. When he announced a new University in Berlin, which could be a model of all European universities, the Fichte’s proposal, Deduced Plan for a higher Educational Establishment to be set up in Berlin, was adopted. The University started at the Palace of the King donated by the Friedrich the Great. The Palace was located at the street Unter den Linden, so is the University called University Unter den Linden.[3] Wilhelm von Humboldt, then Minister of Education and a polymath Scholar as well, attended Fichte’s class of Philosophy as a Minister and as a student as well. Fichte became the first President of the University. The University produced 29 Nobel Laureates in science alone besides Karl Marx, Otto von Bismarck, Friedrich Engels, Ferdinand de Saussure of Structuralism, Walter Benjamin and other prominent. The list of those who have been shaping European intellectual faces is endless. The University Unter den Linden, now known as the Humboldt University has been a model of the Johns Hopkins University and many other American universities across the Atlantic.   

 

[2] Jixia Academy 稷下學宮

 

Much earlier than the spirit of Friedrich the Great, Wilhelm von Humboldt, and Fichte, who fully and successfully embodied Higher Education in Western Civilization, more flourishing and flowering Scholastic Center was created by the King Xuan of Qi. It started by Duke Huan 2300 years earlier in Eastern Civilization.

The patronage of scholarship began with Tian Wu 田午, known as Duke Huan 田桓公 (375-358 BC), who established a bureau at the Jixia, inaugurated the practice of bestowing the title of Grand Officer and extended his welcome to wise men whom he honored and esteemed."[4] The Academy itself seems to have been founded by his son, King Wei of Qi 齊威王 (357-320 BC), who brought together from all over China the outstanding minds of the day. Under the influence of his prime minister, Zou Ji 鄒忌, King Wei patronized some 72 scholars in the Academy, who took delight in deliberating the affairs of government," but who treated Zou Ji disrespectfully whenever they had occasion to associate with him.[11]

鄒忌(約前385-319, 戰國時齊國大臣。以鼓琴游說齊威王,被任相國,封於下邳(今江蘇邳縣西南),稱成侯。勸說威王勵群臣吏民進諫,主張革新政治,修訂法律,選拔人才,勵賢臣,處罰奸吏,並選薦得力大臣堅守四境。從此齊國漸

King Xuan 齊宣王 (319-301 BC) founded a Scholars Hall 稷下學宮 outside the Ji Gate. During this periodthe Academy reached its zenith. The king was fond of scholars who were accomplished in learning and who were gifted virtuosos at rhetoric. Seventy-six such men were associated with the Academy, were given ranks and honors, and made senior grand officers, not to participate in the government but to deliberate and propound learned theories. For this reason, the scholars beneath the Ji Gate 稷下 enjoyed a renaissance coming, to number in the hundreds and thousands”. Mencius says of King Xuan that the “heart behind his actions was sufficient to enable him to become a true king" and that despite his inordinate fondness for acts of valor, money, sex, and musical performances, he might have become great but for his refusal to act in the proper fashion.

The Jixia scholars seem to have been free to debate with one another without any of the responsibilities of high office, though they were accorded its honors and emoluments. Freed from having to put their theories into action, the Jixia scholars seem to have delighted in displays of skill in argumentation. A few, such as Shunyu Kun 淳于髡순우곤, abjured holding of office as a matter of principle, but most seem to have hungered for the power to act that office alone provided. We know very little more about the Jixia Academy and how its scholars debated one another.

It was formally founded around 318 BC in the city of Linzi 臨淄, capital of the state of Qi (modern Shandong province), and Jixia was a gate in the city wall. At the time, Linzi 臨淄 was one of the largest, most prosperous cities in the world. "For the first time on record a state began to act as a patron of scholarship out of the apparent conviction that this was a proper function of the state or a means of increasing its prestige" [1]. Scholars came from great distances to lodge in the academy, with the most important scholar holding the rank of Great Prefect. Notable scholars who worked at the academy included the Daoist 道家 philosophers Tian Pian 田騈, Shen Dao 愼到, and Peng Meng 彭蒙; Zou Yan , Zou Shi 鄒奭, founders of the Yin-Yang school 陰陽家學派創始者 of philosophy; the Mohist 墨家 philosopher Song Xing ; and the Confucian 儒家 philosophers Mencius 孟子, Xun Zi 荀子, and Chunyu Kun 淳于髡.

The Shiji 史記 says that "the king of Qi 齊宣王 favoured these scholars. From Chunyu Kun down he gave them all the rank of ministers and honoured them by building large mansions, broad avenues and imposing gates for them. This was to show the proteges of other rulers that the king of Qi was a good patron."

"The most prominent scholars were called 'Master' (先生 xiān-sheng) and their rank was equivalent to that of a higher-ranking official ( 大夫 Shàng dà-fū) at the Qi court. They received very generous stipends and were exempt from daily administrative tasks." During its heyday, the Jixia Academy was the center of learning in China.

Among other works inspired by or begun at the Jixia Academy, the "Guanzi 管子 essay 'Neiye' 內業 (Inward training) is the oldest received writing on the subject of the cultivation of vapor and meditation techniques. The essay was probably composed at the Jixia Academy in Qi in the late fourth century BC."

The Jixia Academy throve until the reign of King Min of Qi. In 284 BC, Linzi 臨淄 was taken by the army of Yan 燕國 Yān'guó and the scholars of the Academy were scattered.

However, Jixia has continuously formed a backbone of Chinese as well as Oriental scholarship and philosophies until now and into the future of the world.

According to the Records of the Grand Historian 史記, the Jixia Academy inspired jealousy among leaders of other states, including Lü Buwei 呂不韋(291–235 BC), chief minister of Qin, who became the patron of thousands of scholars in Qin between 250 and 238 B.C. He served as Chancellor of China 宰相 zǎixiàng or 丞相 chéngxiàng for King Zhuangxiang of Qin 秦莊襄王, and as regent and Chancellor for the king's young son Ying Zheng (嬴政), who became Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇, the first Emperor of China. Lü Buwei notably sponsored an encyclopedic compendium of Hundred Schools of Thought philosophies, the 239 BCE Lüshi Chunqiu 呂氏春秋

There is widespread agreement that the Yanzi Chunqiu [晏子春秋] (The Spring and Autumn Annals of Minister Yan Ying) was an anthology of the writings of Jixia scholars. It is quite probable that it was composed by followers of Chunyu Kun.

One of the remarkable yet tragic phenomena of Chinese history is emergence of Li Si 李斯 (280–208 BC) was the influential Prime Minister (or Chancellor) of the feudal state and later of the Dynasty of Qin, between 246 BC and 208 BC. He was a student of Xunzi 荀子 at Jixia Academy. Xunzi od course refused to serve Qin Dynasty.[5]

 

[3] Higher Education in the Age of Internet

 

The spirit of Universitas Litterarum of Berlin University spread on entire European continent and America, and shaped over two centuries the spirit of a higher education including Oxford and Cambridge and American higher educational system.

Should this spirit of Universitas Litterarum still be maintained and promoted in the age of Internet? Here is an answer:

Ingeborg Gabriel of University of Vienna delivered a lecture in Rome under the title: Human dignity in a knowledge based society¾the role of the university. It summarizes:

1.      In the 13th and 14th centuries the foundations of present European culture were laid at the transition from a feudal to an urban culture. The first universities were founded at that time and the university as an ideal as well as a reality was and is part of this culture.

The word, universitas, contains the programme of the institution: the search for and the teaching of knowledge in its universality, the universitas litterarum.

2.      The second part of the programme of the university is that as the universitas magistrorum and studentorum it forms a community not only in the legal or administrative sense (which is also the case) but in the strictly scientific sense. Knowledge is to be acquired through personal discourse in a scientific community. (The questions of Thomas of Aquinas show this in a paradigmatic, formalized way).

3.      The two core elements of the globally unique European concept of the university are thus¾the quest for the unity of knowledge, which theologically is grounded in the unity of the creation¾and its dialogical and communal acquisition As Plato put it beautifully in his seventh letter: By holding discourse many times and by being together in confidence and search for the truth suddenly a light springs up like from a flying spark (Platon 7. Brief 341c).

4.      Sociologically we find ourselves in a period of transition from an industrial to the knowledge-based society, which share important characteristics, but also differ in significant aspects. Modern man since the age of enlightenment defines himself as “worker and owner” as a homo faber, whose work transforms the world according to his needs and creates his property, which in turn protects his liberty. For Enlightenment philosophy (as well as for Marx) work therefore constitutes the central pursuit of man. [Homo faber suae quisque fortunae; Man shapes his own fate; man is the blacksmith of his fate] Appius Claudius Caecus

5.      In this context the first and foremost aim of science was and is its usability for production through technical inventions and their potential usage in the economy. This utilitarian approach led to a grave crisis in the university system at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. Between 1790 and 1820 many universities in the German speaking countries were closed and replaced by technical schools, which were to give technical training directly applicable for the working process. The natural sciences insofar as they serve as the basis for technical science and economic progress acquired a position of dominance.

6.      This situation is not far from todays. The complaints about the marginalization of the humanities are nearly identical in Newman’s Idea of the University and in current writings on university issues, as those of Ralf Dahrendorf and Hans Grimm, the president of the German Fakultatentag (Professor’s Association). Behind this lie however deeper anthropological questions, which help to better understand the problem.

7.      Natural sciences produce knowledge, which can contribute to the “wealth of nations”: In societies where wealth has become the main and only aim, which can command public consensus, this priority of the applied sciences reflects the basic interests of the society and consequently politics and its view of the common good as consisting in economic growth.

8.      But there also existed from the very beginning strong counter-movement against the functionalization of knowledge:

9.      Adam Smith, the founder of modern economics, who was a moral philosopher by profession saw - with admirable farsightedness, that the monotony the division of labor in industrial society demanded has de-humanizing effects on the labourer who “becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become, his sentiments become stunted, and he becomes altogether incapable of judging.” (A. Smith, Wealth of nations, Book V/1). Adam Smith therefore pled for widespread universal education as a public good.

10.  The idea of the universitas litterarum was revived in Germany at the beginning of the 19th century by Wilhelm von Humboldt, who defended the ideal of universal knowledge on humanistic grounds and on the basis of Romantic ideas.

11.  Firstly on financial premises: globalization processes undermine national economies and lead to an increase of competition in the economic sphere. Public goods and services including the universities loose public support and financing and get under increasing pressure to proof their usefulness in a situation of increasing worldwide economic competition.

12.  The radical changes in society and in work, e.g. the fact that the traditional ways of fulltime und lifelong employment are becoming the exception rather than the rule, confront the individual with a high degree of uncertainty, and the ever increasing need for professional and personal flexibility. Flexibility originally means the ability of a tree to bend and consequently get back into an upright position. Applied to human beings flexibility therefore means that they despite all adaptations they need to make in work and personal life have a firm core or personality centre which enables them to remain themselves and that is also creative human beings.

13.  Whereas in industrial society the monotony of work had potentially dehumanizing effects in a knowledge based society it is the information flood (the word is evocative) which endangers human integrity. E. g. the use of the internet creates a magnificent sense of universality. I can get the information from it for which I formerly had to visit libraries around the world and I can find out about any subject I happen to be interested in. This offers an easy access to universal knowledge former generations could not even dream of.

14.  This is also a metaphor for the problem the person is confronted with today: the fragmentation of its knowledge, values and ultimately personality.

15.  University education is more than functional education for work or a mere presentation of disperate facts. It is the place where students as the future leaders of the community are taught to make sense of their knowledge in their own subjects, to question given answers and to acquire a basic knowledge of the anthropological, cultural and ultimately religious issues which are important for human life. It is also a place where students should learn to communicate their ideas to others, to discuss in structured and fruitful way, to develop a culture of discourse which lies at the basis of political life. This will also enable them to contribute to their own science, the common good in democratic societies and in a rapidly changing globalizing world which requires the respect of others and other cultures and therefore needs a good understanding of one’s own.

http://www.universitas2000.org/eventi/simposio/2004_2005/IngeborgGabriel.pdf

 The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars" or a world of teachers and students

 

[4] Globalization of Higher Education

 

The outlook of globalization of Higher Education is pessimistic and dehumanizing not only individuals, but the entire society as well. Imagine students watching Richard Feynman’s physics lecture in front of a jumbotron screen or electronic dispay board. You don’t need a single physics professor in entire world. Laboratory experiments are more impressing whether they are medical or veterinary anatomy or hadron experiments in CERN. Virtual laboratories let you walk in the laboratories, sit in front of experiments, and touch the machine. They are not DVD that the professors use as an aid for teaching; they are controlled by the Wall Street on a VOD (Video on demand and simulcast on any language) and well protected as intellectual properties.

Fantastic! We don’t need universities or teachers. Tuition is much cheaper, and you don’t have to commute. You don’t have to be away from your home Mommy cooks hot homemade foods to go to a university town. We need a few technicians who babysit us. Is it a second coming of the Brave New World or the end of education?

University is a community, and man’s activity is a part of communal activity. Globalization destroys the very sense of community concept. It dehumanizes and demoralizes. In globalization man is isolated, neglected, and abandoned. It is a world of David Riesman’s Lonely Crowd.[6] Real community is a small community. A community of Ernst Fritz Schumacher’s Small Is Beautiful. Even the economy should not be of the monopolized financial capitalism, but a Buddhist economy as coined and described in the Chapter Four of Schumacher’s Book.[7]

Can and should a professor, a moral man according to Fichte, be reduced to globalized automata? Our government like many others pursues this uncharted deadly course. Who could rescue the nation from this danger? We have to rediscover our own Renaissance, not the Renaissance as an escape from the Dark Middle Age, but by healing the West and Western civilization as prescribed in Ezra Pound’s Cantos and reviving our Classics.

 

2

 

[1] The structure of language, and identity of nation state.

 Indiscriminately driving of English language exerts tremendous pressure on everyone who lives in Korea without examining the benefits and harms it creates. It does not mean that we should not learn foreign languages. In academia, professors are forced to give lectures in English. This educational policy creates mental stress among students as well to the teachers. It creates a deep moral dilemma as well. Philosophical and sociological legitimacy of English in a non-English country is not well founded either. Even at elementary school English language becomes a measure of children’s superiority in ability and economic viability. Such a dangerous language policy makes the entire nation suffer from social schizophasia 分裂性語言 and/or paraphasia 言語錯亂, and finally cripples to a society of full of lingo orphans. Arts, literature, roman, music, science, and social fabric composed of variety of these ingredients have no proper acceptance in their own cultural niche. The frame coordinates of all cultures, tradition, law, logic, and customs is the language. In these respects, I will examine the language itself, and its proper place in epistemology and history.

Function of Language

Our current understanding of language has two purposes, namely thought process and communicative vehicle: We formulate our thought through language and we communicate each other through language. These two seemingly different functions of language are so closely interwoven that one without the other cannot stand alone. Language as a communicative process exists not only in human being but in animal kingdom also as it is derived from the Latin word lingua for tongue. Inseparability of thought and communication further demonstrates that thought process exists in all the social animals no matter how primitive they would be. Much earlier in the Hellenistic civilization Logos (logoV) which comes originally from legō (lέgw) meaning talk, tell and speak was immediately extended to for describing thought, reason account, consideration, esteem, relation, proportion, analogy and similar mental exercise. Greek philosophy flourished due precisely to the application of logoV and lέgw along with πάθος (pathos) and ηθος (ethos) which are again manifested in lέgw (legō).

 

In order to expand the horizon of knowledge we use, in addition, symbols and develop a new branch of science of semiotics. Leibniz, the founder of calculus (differential/integral equation) and mathematical symbols, has been the first western mathematician and philosopher occupied with language and symbol. He is deeply involved in the study of Chinese characters and imagoarithmetica or semioarithmetica 象數學. or imagoarithmetics. As a sinophile, Leibniz was aware of the I Ching 易經 and noted with fascination how its hexagrams 六十四卦 correspond to the binary numbers from 0 to 111111 and concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical mathematics he admired. 64 Hexagram is an 8x8 matrix of trigram 八卦 from where Korean national flag is derived.

L'invention de cette langue depend de la vraye Philosophie; car il est impossible autrement de denombrer toutes les pensées des hommes, et de les mettre par ordre, ny seulement de les distinguer en sorte qu'elles soient claires et simples; qui est à mon advis le plus grand secret qu'on puisse avoir pour acquerir la bonne science; [et si quelqu'un avoit bien expliqué quelles sont les idées simples qui sont en l'imagination des hommes, desquelles se compose tout ce qu'ils pensent, et que cela fust receu par tout le monde, i'oserois esperer ensuite une langue universelle fort aisée à aprendre, à prononcer, et à écrire et ce qui est le principal, qui ayderoit au iugement, luy representant si distinctement toutes choses, qu'il luy seroit presque impossible de se tromper; au lieu que tout au rebours, les mots que nous avons n'ont quasi que des significations confuses, ausquelles l'Esprit des hommes s'estant acoutumé de longue main, cela est cause qu'il n'entend presque rien parfaitement.] Or ie tiens que cette langue est possible, et qu'on peut trouver la Science de qui elle dépend, par le moyen de laquelle les Paysans pouroient mieux iuger de la verité des choses, que ne font maintenant les Philosophes.[8]

The discovery of such a language depends upon the true philosophy. For without that philosophy it is impossible to number and order all the thoughts of men or even to separate them into clear and simple thoughts, which in my opinion is the great secret for acquiring true scientific knowledge.[….] I think it is possible to invent such a language and to discover the science on which it depends: it would make [even] peasants better judges of the truth about the world than philosophers are now. But do not hope ever to see such language in use. [For that, the order of nature would have to change so that the world turned into a terrestrial paradise; and that is too much to suggest outside of fairyland.] Translation by Jacques Derrida.[9]

Leibniz expressly refers to this letter and to the analytical principle it formulates. The entire project implies the decomposition into simple ideas. It is the only way to substitute calculation for reasoning. In that sense, the universal characteristic depends on philosophy for its principle but it may be undertaken without waiting for the completion of philosophy.

The characteristic 幂数(미수) economizes on the spirit and imagination, whose expense must always be husbanded. It is the principal goal of this great science that I am used to calling Characteristic, of which what we call Algebra, or Analysis, is only a small branch; for it is this science that gives speech to languages, letters to speech, numbers to arithmetic, notes to music; it teaches us the secret stabilizing reasoning, and of obliging it to leave visible marks on the paper in a little volume, to be examined at leisure; finally, it makes us reason at little cost, putting characters in the place of things in order to ease the imagination.

In spite of all the differences that separate the projects of universal language or writing at this time (notably with respect to history and language), the concept of simple absolute is always necessarily and indispensably involved. It would be easy to show that it always leads to infinitist theology 無限主義神學 and to the logos or infinite understanding of God. That is why, appearances to the contrary, and in spite of all the seduction that it can legitimately exercise on our epoch, the Leibnizian project of a universal characteristic 万有特性 that is not essentially phonetic does not interrupt logocentrism in any way. On the contrary, universal logic confirms logocentrism, is produced within it and with its help, exactly like the Hegelian critique to which it will be subjected. I emphasize the complicity of these two contradictory movements. Within a certain historical epoch, there is a profound unity among the inifinitist theology, logocentrism, and a certain technicism 技術至上主義. The originary and pre- or meta-phonetic writing that I am attempting to conceive of here leads to nothing less than an overtaking of speech by the machine.

In an original and non ‘relativist’ sense, logocentrism 語言中心主義 is an ethnocentric metaphysics 民族中心主義的 思辨哲學. It is related to the history of the West. The Chinese model only apparently interrupt it when Leibniz refers to it to teach Characteristic. Not only does this model remain a domestic representation, but also, it is praised only for the purpose of designating a lack and to define the necessary corrections. What Leibniz is eager to borrow from the Chinese writing is its arbitrariness and therefore its independence with regard to history. The arbitrariness has an essential link with non-phonetic essence which Leibniz believes he can attribute to Chinese writing. The latter seems to have been “invented by a deaf man”.[9]

Cependant quoyque cette langue depende de la vraye philosophie, elle ne depend pas de sa perfection. C'est à dire cette langue peut estre établie, quoyque la philosophie ne soit pas parfaite: et à mesure que la science des hommes croistra, cette langue croistra aussi. En attendant elle sera d'un Jecours merveilleux et pour se servir de ce que nous sçavons, et pour voir ce qui nous manque, et pour inventer les moyens d'y arriver, mais sur tout pour exterminer les controversies dans les matieres qui dependent du raisonnement. Car alors raisonner et calculer sera la même chose.[8] (Although this language depends on the true philosophy, it does not depend on its perfection. This language can be established even if philosophy is not perfect. As men’s knowledge grows, this language will grow as well. Meanwhile it will be of great help for using what we know for finding out what we lack, for inventing way of redeeming the lack, but especially for settling controversies in matters that depend on reasoning. For then reasoning and calculating will be the same thing.)

In a letter to Joachim Bouvet [1703], Leibniz described that:[10]

Chinese characters are perhaps more philosophical and seem to be built upon more intellectual considerations, such as are given by numbers, orders, and relations, thus there are only detached strokes that do not culminate in some resemblances to a sort of body.

However, Leibniz did not examine the structure of Korean language. In essence Korean language is composed logographeme and ethnocentric phoneme. Phoneme of Hanja 漢字 is always monosyllabic unlike Chinese and its construction sits in a stable box. Not because that I am a Korean, but from philosophical and comparative linguistic analysis Korean language is by far the most superior and advanced language. If Leibniz knew the Korean language, he would unhesitatingly say that the Korean language is the most philosophical one.

 

 

Western terminology for 象數學 (xiangshu xue) is not well established. There are several possibilities such as imagoarithmetica, imagoarithmetics, semioarithmetica, imagonumerics, imagomathematics, or semionumerics of Shao Yong 邵雍. Throughout this thesis, I use imagoarithmetica or semioarithmetica after careful consideration of Leibnizian interpretation of I Ching and Fuxi 伏羲. Anne D. Birdwhistell [9] and Don J. Wyatt [10] used image-number study for 象數學.

 

64 Hexagram 六十四卦


坤(地)


艮(山)


坎(水)


巽(風)


震(雷)


離(火)


兌(


乾(天)

上卦
下卦



11.地天泰



26.山天大畜



5.水天需



9.風天小畜



34.雷天大



14.火天大有



43.天夬



1.


乾(天)



19.



41.



60.



61.中孚



54.歸妹



38.



58.為泽



10.


兌(



36.地火明夷



22.山火賁



63.水火



37.風火家人



55.雷火豊



30.



49.火革



13.天火同人


離(火)



24.地雷復



27.山雷



3.水雷屯



42.風雷益



51.



21.火雷噬嗑



17.



25.天雷无妄


震(雷)



46.地風升



18.山風蠱



48.水風井



57.



32.雷風恒



50.火風鼎



28.風大過



44.天風姤


巽(風)



7.地水師



4.山水蒙



29.



59.風水渙



40.雷水解



64.火水未濟



47.水困



6.天水訟


坎(水)



15.地山謙



52.



39.水山蹇



53.風山漸



62.雷山小過



56.火山旅



31.山咸



33.天山遯


艮(山)



2.



23.山地



8.水地比



20.風地觀



16.雷地豫



35.火地晋



45.地萃



12.天地否


坤(地)

Figure 1. 64 Hexagram.[11-21]

 

Monolemma Culture and Civilization: Monolemma’s Dilemma

[1] Soliloquy of Hamlet

The logical dilemma in Western thoughts in literature is a soliloquy, the tragic lament of Hamlet of Shakespeare.

To be, or not to be, that is the question:

Hamlet’s soliloquy begins with what must be the most famous line in the English canon: “To be or not to be.” For the character at that moment, it is an important question, literally one of “life and death”, but the general terms in which it is phrased gives it a resonance that reaches out past Hamlet. Hamlet poses the question on the most metaphysical level – not “shall I kill myself?”, nor “can I live like this?” but “to be or not to be”. It is existence itself that is up for debate in this speech.

The form of words guarantees that Hamlet’s question will be interpreted on a general level: the line uses one of the most basic verbs in the language, one without which English itself would surely be impossible to speak. The verb is then phrased in the infinitive, “to be”, rather than attaching it to any specific noun or pronoun (not even Hamlet’s own “I”). Balancing it on the other side of “or” is the simplest possible opposition, the same verb with a one syllable prefix: “not”.

[2] Søren Kierkegaard’s Either/Or

Søren Kierkegaard explored the aesthetic and ethical "phases" or "stages" of existence in his influential book, Either/Or. Either/Or portrays two life views, one consciously hedonistic, the other based on ethical duty and responsibility.

A common interpretation of Either/Or presents the reader with a choice between two approaches to life. There are no standards or guidelines which indicate how to choose. The reasons for choosing an ethical way of life over the aesthetic only make sense if one is already committed to an ethical way of life. Suggesting the aesthetic approach as evil implies one has already accepted the idea that there is a good/evil distinction to be made. Likewise, choosing an aesthetic way of life only appeals to the aesthete, ruling Judge Vilhelm's ethics as inconsequential and preferring the pleasures of seduction. Thus, existentialists see Victor Eremita as presenting a radical choice in which no pre-ordained value can be discerned. One must choose, and through one's choices, one creates what one is. Such dichotomic choice, either/or, stems from Western linguistic atrocity.

[3] Aristotelian logic

Western civilization of both Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian traditions is based on Aristotelian logic such as the law of excluded middle on the one hand, and biblical dogmatic choice between evil and good, eternal life and death, and heaven and inferno on the other. One is destined to choose only between these two. It is a coercion, and one is never be free.

The three classic laws of thought of the West are attributed to Aristotle and were foundational in scholastic logic. However, Hegel expanded in his The Science of Logic as:

law of identity 同一律 (Aristotle)

Law of identity is inaccurate because a thing is always more than itself (Hegel)

law of noncontradiction 無矛盾律 (Aristotle)

Law of non-contradiction is inaccurate because everything in existence is both itself and not itself (Hegel)

law of excluded middle 中排論 (Aristotle)

Law of excluded middle is inaccurate because a thing can be both itself and many others (Hegel)

Hegel wanted to liberate from Aristotle, but he cannot be free as long as the logic proposition is based on the same linguistic niche.

However, Søren Kierkegaard rejected Hegel, despite of its incompleteness, because man has no choice in his ethical determination. Hegel’s criticism of excluded middle is not law of included middle 中含論(法包括中間).

Recently, Graham Priest pointed out that under some conditions, some statements can be both true and false simultaneously, or may be true and false at different times. Applied universally, without specified conditions or axiomatic restrictions, this dialetheism will cause every statement, to explode, to become true. Dialetheism 雙面眞理說 arises from formal logical paradoxes, such as the Liar's paradox and Russell's paradox.

Dialetheism is the view that some statements can be both true and false simultaneously. More precisely, it is the belief that there can be a true statement whose negation is also true. Such statements are called "true contradictions" or dialetheia.

Dialetheism 雙面眞理說 is not a system of formal logic; instead, it is a hypothesis that can be introduced as an axiom within pre-existing systems of formal logic. Introducing dialetheism has various consequences, depending on the theory into which it is introduced. For example, in traditional systems of logic (e.g., classical logic and intuitionistic logic), every statement becomes true if a contradiction is true; this means that such systems become trivial when dialetheism is included as an axiom. Other logical systems do not explode in this manner when contradictions are introduced; such contradiction-tolerant 矛盾許容 systems are known as paraconsistent [inconsistency-tolerant 不一致許容] logics.

Traditionally, in Aristotle's classical logical calculus, in evaluating any proposition there are only two possible truth values, "true" and "false." An obvious extension to classical two-valued logic is a many-valued logic for more than two possible values. In logic, a many- or multi-valued logic is a propositional calculus in which there are more than two values. Those most popular in the literature are three-valued (e.g., Łukasiewicz's and Kleene's), which accept the values "true", "false", and "unknown", finite-valued with more than three values, and the infinite-valued (e.g. fuzzy logic and probability logic) logics.

 

The ‘becoming’ ontology 變化過程的形成 本体論

The ‘becoming’ ontology according to the Western tradition, Heraclitus wrote a treatise about nature named "Perì phýseōs", "About Nature," in which appears the famous aphorism "panta rei [os potamòs]" translated literally as "the whole flows [as a river]," or figuratively as "everything flows, nothing stands still." The concept of "becoming" in philosophy is strictly connected with two others: movement and evolution, as ‘becoming’ assumes a ‘changing to’ and a ‘moving toward.’ The philosophy of ‘becoming’ recently received attention from eschatological process on the one hand and irreversible thermodynamics of Lars Onsager and Ilya Prigogine on the other. The former is the Christian theology of ‘becoming’ from Son of Man to Son of God, and the latter the science of the process of ‘becoming’ for the formation of life from primordial soup to Teilhard de Chardin’s Omega (W) point. Heraclitian ‘becoming’ philosophy is very probably of oriental philosophical origin. In addition, Teilhard de Chardin spent most of his life in China. He is better known under his name 德日進 Dérìjìn in China. The concept of his noosphere 精神界 derived from the Greek nous (mind) + sphaira (sphere) as the final stage after atmosphere (atmos=vapor + sphaera=氣界) and biosphere (bio=life + sphaera=生命系). His cosmogenesis are clearly influenced by Laozi’s 老子 Dao De Jing 道德經 and by Guifeng Zongmi (圭峰 宗密 780-841) Zongmi 宗密 is the most influential Buddhist philosopher of Dang Dynasty 唐朝, whose sphere of influence stretched to Korea and Japan. Zongmi’s thought is transmitted to Korea and Japan and further developed by Jinul (普照國師 知訥; 1158–1210). According to Zongmi,

遠則混沌 一氣剖陰陽之二、二生天地人三、三生萬物。萬物與人 皆氣

In the beginning there was a Chaos, the one pneuma of the primordial Chaos divided into the dyad of Yin and Yang, the two engendered the triad of heaven, earth, and human beings, and the three engendered the myriad things. The myriad things and human beings all have the pneuma as their origin.[21]

It is reminiscent of Dao De Jing 道德經 in that Dao () has no reference 基準 and that Zongmi’s primordial Chaos corresponds to Wuji 無極 which originally meant "ultimateless; boundless; infinite" in Daoist classics, yet came to mean the "primordial universe" prior to the Taiji 太極 "Supreme Ultimate" in Song Dynasty (960-1279) Neo-Confucianist cosmology 性理學宇宙論.

In an array of logical propositions, we face a dilemma. What is a dilemma? It is a combination of two words, di (two) and lemma (proposition 引理). In mathematics, a lemma (plural lemmata or lemmas from the Greek λήμμα, "lemma" meaning "anything which is received, such as a gift, profit, or a bribe") is a proven proposition which is used as a stepping stone to a larger result rather than as a statement in-and-of itself. A good stepping stone leads to many others, so some of the most powerful results in mathematics are known as lemmata, such as Gauss's lemma and Poincaré's lemma, There is no formal distinction between a lemma and a theorem, only one of usage and convention.

Dilemma First attested 1523, from Late Latin dilemma, from Ancient Greek δίλημμα (dilēmma, “double proposition”), from δι- + λημμα (tow lēmma, “premise, proposition”).

How about multilemma? Trilemma is conceived as a circumstance in which a choice must be made between three options that seem equally undesirable. In logic, a syllogism containing three alternatives that each infer the same conclusion.

When we examine the logic, whether it is Aristotelian or Hegelian, it seems that one treats logic as a particle, let’s say, logicon (理子 邏輯子). In fact, Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein adhered to logical atomism (邏輯原子主義) similar to my jargon. Later they abandoned it. Monolemma does not rescue Western civilization and dilemma brings chaos.

Meanwhile, in the advent of the twentieth Century, Science is confronted with linguistic problem of Western language in describing wave particle duality for a single phenomenon of a single noumenon. They coined it wavicle in order to get out of this mess. De Broglie relation succinctly describes it, but the Western language is not rescued from dichotomic nature of Western language as exemplified in previous section. Many attempts to substitute it by mathematical symbols. However, wavicle is not an entity; it is a continuum. Western language itself is not free from this logical proposition.

Subsequent confusions arise in distinguishing between the classical Hamiltonian and wave functions. The logic imbedded in the Western language does not allow transition from deterministic to probabilistic description albeit symbols like and Y.

Could this confusion and insolvency be rescued by the oriental languages that are deeply absorbed in the Chinese characters where Korean language is an integral part of this ethno-linguistic tradition? Not straightforward. Let us examine the fundamental aspect of Chinese Characters.

 

Ideologographeme 形意語素字位

Primitive structural basis of Chinese Character is ideogram or ideograph 形意文字 (from Greek ideo=idea + grafo=write). Ideogram is a graphic symbol that represents an idea or concept. Some ideograms are comprehensible only by familiarity with prior convention; others convey their meaning through pictorial resemblance to a physical object, and thus may also be referred to as pictograms 象形圖.

Logogram, or logograph 語素文字, is a grapheme 字位 which represents a word or a morpheme 語素 (the smallest meaningful unit of language). This stands in contrast to phonograms 表音文字, which represent phonemes 音位 (speech sounds) or combinations of phonemes, and determinatives, which mark semantic categories.

Chinese characters started with "ideograms", but now after long historical and philosophical evolution, the Chinese characters have solely of logographic nature. The character set is broken into pictograms (象形字), semantic-phonetic compounds (形聲字), simple ideographs (指事字), logical aggregates (會意字), associate transformations (轉注字), and phonetic loan characters (假借字) Others terms include Sinogram 漢字 emphasizing the Chinese origin of the characters, and Han character, a literal translation of the native term. The native terms (Chinese hanzi (漢字), Japanese kanji, Korean hanja) are also fairly widespread in the contexts of the individual languages.

When Max Planck delivered a lecture in 1923 at the University of Beijing, Hu Gang Fu 胡剛復 hú gāng fù of Harvard physicist, then the interpreter, introduced a new Chinese Character for Entropy, pronouncing shāng. The corresponding enthalpy was (han heat content). These two words are certainly of logographic origin. When you consult the MS Office Korean-Chinese conversion table, you realize it is pronounced as (di ), not shāng , such as (di water drop), (di enemy), (shì fit) etc. Apparently, they were confused with . So many such errors are noticed in Korean Internet milieu.

此外 曾在1923年 陪同 德國科學家 普朗克 (Max Planck) 來中國講學。講學時用到 entropy一詞,胡剛復在翻譯時 靈機一動,把字加火旁來意譯此詞,創造了字,發音同http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/%E8%83%A1%E5%89%9B%E5%BE%A9

 

乾(天) 坤(地)

where a single solid line represents 0 and a single broken line 1. The Yin-Yang concept of Fuxi 伏羲 led Leibniz to construct and formulate his seminal work, Explication de l'arithmétique binaire (1705) [Explanation of binary arithmetic][7].

In describing the nature, the dichotomical nature of western language often hinders further development of cognitive horizon as the subject has been seriously concerned by Walter Gerlach of Stern-Gerlach experiment and Werner Heisenberg’s Gedankenexperiment.

Rescue or not, let us look at the oriental Yin-Yang 陰陽. Yin and Yang are not opposing forces (dualities), but complementary opposites that interact within a greater whole, as part of a dynamic system. Everything has both yin and yang aspects as light cannot exist without darkness and vice-versa, but either of these aspects may manifest more strongly in particular objects, and may ebb or flow over time. The concept of yin and yang is often symbolized by various forms of the Taijitu 太極圖 symbol, for which it is probably best known in western cultures. In other word, there is no such decision making as to whether the thing is either Yin or Yang. More Yin or more Yang may be possible, but the fundamentality is not of the  Aristotelian logical exclusion of the middle.

There is a misperception particularly in the West that Yin and Yang correspond to evil and good, to be or not to be, or truth and falsehood in the Western logic. However, Taoist philosophy generally rejects good/bad, to be/not to be, or truth or falsehood distinctions and other dichotomous logical and moral judgments, in preference to the idea of balance.

In the I Ching 易經, yin-yang is represented by broken and solid lines: yang is solid and yin is broken. These are then combined into trigrams, which are more yang or more yin depending on the number of broken and solid lines (e.g., is heavily yang, while is heavily yin), and trigrams are combined into hexagrams (see Figure 1. 64 Hexagram). The Yin-Yang, not Yin and Yang, flows continuously. They are not particles. The relative positions and numbers of yin and yang lines within the trigrams determine the meaning of a trigram, and in hexagrams the upper trigram is considered yang with respect to the lower trigram, allowing complex depictions of interrelations (see Figure 1. 64 Hexagram). In the Dao De Jing 道德經, Chapter 42, we see:

 The Dao produced One; One produced Two; Two produced Three; Three produced All things [道生一 一生二 二生三 三生萬物]. All things[萬物] under heaven sprang from It[] as existing (and named); that existence sprang from It[] as non-existent (and not named) [天下萬物生於有 有生於無] [Chapter 40 of Dao De Jing 道德經]. It is a Becoming processfrom a primordial or hidden Noumenon to Phenomenon , a long process of cosmovolution 宇宙演化思想[9]

This cyclical nature of Yin-Yang is not a discrete quantity, but rather a continuum, and opens up the Western linguistic impasse. It cannot be defined as dichotomy or juxtaposition in the way we are accustomed to the Western thought process.

Loqui est voce articulata signum dare cogitationis sure. Scribere est id facere permanentibus in charta ductibus. Quos ad vocem referri non est necesse, ut apparet ex Sinensium characteribus.

[Speech is to give the sign of one’s thought with articulated voice. Writing is to do it with permanent characters on paper. The latter need not be referred back to the voice, as is obvious from the characters of Chinese script.]

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Opuscules, page 497 in INTELLECTUS EXPRESSIO, TABLE DE DÉFINITIONS

 

3

 

[1] Competition or Symbiosis?

Simple statistics convinces us that, if such discoveries develop at a rate characteristic for recent years, in the relatively near future the majority of tissues and organs in animals and plants will be transferred to the category of symbiogenetic phenomena.[23]

Boris Kozo-Polyansky, Symbiogenesis 1924, English Translation by Victor Fet

Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2010, Page 102

 

The word ‘competition’ is the mantra in the Korean society as a whole. It is rampant throughout the nation among children, academia, business, and whatever you name it. The unlimited competition [無限競爭] is considered as virtue and becomes a way of living philosophy in Korea and some of capitalistic nations. It is an infectious disease along with preference of English language over its own native language, philosophy, and tradition. I would like to examine thoroughly as to whether we should adapt and promote this decaying social behavior. We find the competition in the root of Western civilization, particularly in the era of neoliberal financial capitalism. If it is the last stage of capitalism, it means also the end of capitalism.

Herbert Spencer, coined word ‘the survival of the fittest 最適者生存’, which unexamined has driven the capitalist world into bloody competition: an individual’s welfare at the expenses of neighborhood. Later Charles Darwin inserted this sentence into the fifth edition of his Origin of Species without much thoughtful consideration. Social Darwinism, the concept advocated by Spencer, once dominated the mind of Capitalism while now out of major political literature, insidiously penetrated into the mind of innocent people without notice.

Competition exists in all level of instinct from food to sex. Competition is not an adaptation. It is not an evolutionary scheme based on the natural selection. It is devolution. There is no single literature that supports that competition contributes to the evolution. To a society as a whole it is a single destructive element.

Competition in a social perspective weakens the social fabric and finally disintegrates the society and falls to prey of the international predators.

In Korea, every year about 15,000 men and women commit suicide, among which 400 university students take their lives due mostly to academic or financial pressure.

More than 150,000 people, about 10 times of suicide, seriously contemplate it or visit psychiatrist for help. Competition causes depression and suicide and ruins the nation. What use even if the competition Depression, the precursor of suicide, destroys family, causes divorce, jeopardize social life, and finally cost the society he or she dwells in. This number is alarmingly increases. How much schizophasia/paraphasia and competition contribute to these malaise? Right here in this KAIST another student committed suicide.

Should we resort ourselves to the serotonin level of the individuals? The answer is No. Most of psychiatric abnormalities including depressions, bipolar depression, Parkinsonism, and dementia of all sorts are of environmental origin. We are the cause of these diseases. We made it and therefore we ought to cure it and prevent it.

Have we ever thought that the very concept of competition is of origin of Western linguistics?

 

Emergence of Symbiogenesis

 At the time the Bolshevik revolution swept the entire Russia, there has undergone a rather quiet revolution in Biological Science unnoticed to the rest of the world. "Symbiogenesis", a term first coined by the Russian botanist K.S. Merezhkovsky in the late 19th century, is the evolution of new life forms, from the physical union of different, once-independent partners. Liya Khakhina traces the development of the concept in Russian and Soviet scientific literature, reviewing the contributions of Merezhkovsky, A.S. Famintsyn, B.M. Kozo-Polyansky and other prominent Russian scientists, to theories of symbiosis in evolution.[23-28]

The greatest advancement in the understanding of biological evolution is a formation of eukaryotes from two prokaryotes. Incorporation of mitochondria is another manifestation of the biological evolution. Entire animal kingdom evolves as a result of mutual aid.[29]

 

References

1

1550s, in phrase jobbe of worke "piece of work" (contrasted with continuous labor),      perhaps a variant of gobbe "mass, lump" (c.1400; see gob). Sense of "work done for pay" first recorded 1650s. Slang meaning "specimen, thing, person" is from 1927. The verb is attested from 1660s. On the job "hard at work" is from 1882. Job lot is from obsolete sense of "cartload, lump," which might also ultimately be from gob. job. (1) A low mean lucrative busy affair. (2) Petty, piddling work; a piece of chance work. [Johnson's Dictionary]

2

The popular works of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Volume I, translated from German by William Smith, London: Trübner & Co., Ludgate Hall, 1889.

3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unter_den_Linden

4

Jixia Academy 稷下學宮 is the first University in the world consisting of 80 professors and 3,000 students. Literally translated it is called Learning Palace.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jixia_Academy

5

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Si

6

David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd, Revised edition: A Study of the Changing American Character, Yale University Press, 2001.

7

E. F. Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful, 25th Anniversary Edition: Economics As If People Mattered: 25 Years Later . . . With Commentaries, Hartley and Marks Publishers, 2000.

8

Opuscules et Fragments Inédits de Leibniz, Felix Alcan, Éditeur, Ancienne Libraire Germer Bailliére etiére et Cie, 108, Boulevard Saint-Germain, 1903, Paris. Page 28.

9

Jacques Derrida, Of Gramatology [De la Gramatologie], The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1997. Page 78.

10

http://ads.ccsd.cnrs.fr/ads-00104781_v1/ (Original French Version)

http://www.leibniz-translations.com/binary.htm (English translation)

11

Anne Birdwhistell, Transition to Neo-Confucianism [朱子學 性理學]: Shao Yung [Shao Yong 邵雍] on Knowledge and Symbols of Reality. Stanford University Press, 1989

12

Don J. Wyatt, The Recluse of Loyang [Louyang 洛陽]: Shao Yung and the Moral Evolution of Early Sung Thought, University of Hawaii Press, 1996

13

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba_gua  

14

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Ching  

15

http://www.fourpillars.net/pdf/kingwen.pdf  

16

http://www.64gua.com/ebook/zyj/html/02.html  

17

For further explanation of trigram (八卦), hexagram (六十四卦), I Ching (易經), and Shao Yong (邵雍), see http://www.baidu.com

18

Noam Chomsky. (2002): Syntactic Structures (2nd Edition) Walter de Gruyter; 2nd edition.

19

Noam Chomsky. (2006): Language and Mind (3rd Edition). New York: Cambridge University Press.

20

Noam Chomsky, Biolinguistics and the Human Capacity

Lecture at MTA, Budapest, May 17, 2004

http://www.nytud.hu/chomsky/lect.html

21

Peter Gregory, Inquiry Into the Origin of Humanity: An Annotated Translation of Tsung-Mi's Yuan Jen Lun with a Modern Commentary (Classics in East Asian Buddhism), University of Hawaii Press, 1995. This excellent translation is a source for understanding Northeast Asian Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛敎. Original title is Origin of Life 原因論. Peter Gregory translated it under somewhat different English title.

22

Life and Universe manifested in Phenomenological World, http://quovadis.tistory.com/entry/현상세계現象世界에서-현시顯示되는-생명과-우주

23

Boris Kozo-Polyansky, Symbiogenesis 1924, English Translation by Victor Fet, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2010, Page 102

24

Liya Nikolaevna Khakhina, Concepts of Symbiogenesis: A Historical and Critical Study of the Research of Russian Botanists (Bio-Origins Series), Yale University Press, New Heaven, 1992.

25

Ivan E. Wallin, Symbionticism and the Origin of Species, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, 1927.

26

Jan Sapp, Evolution by Association: A History of Symbiosis, Oxford University Press, New York, 1994.

27

Jan Sapp, The New Foundations of Evolution: On the Tree of Life, Oxford University Press, New York, 2009.

28

Paul. Buchner, Tier und Pflanze in intrazellularer Symbiose, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1921. [Paul Buchner, Endosymbiosis of Animals with Plant Microorganisms, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Interscience Publ., New York, 1965].

29

Petr Kropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, 1902, reproduced by Forgotten Books, 2010. http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/4341/pg4341.html

                                   

 

 

 

 

 

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